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BY JOSEPH BATTELL 

Author of "The Morgan Horse and Register," "The Horse," "Money 
and the Money Power," etc., etc. 



"Here the ineffable 

WrougJit is in love ; 
The ever womanly 
Draws ns above" 



AMERICAN PUBLISHING COMPANY 
MIDDLEBURY, VERMONT 
1901 
\ 



PREFACE. 



TN the conception of this book it was not at all the intention 
* of the author to criticise science. It is true that he, as 
doubtless many others, having no confidence in the small 
experiments resorted to by many scientists to prove their 
hypotheses, had always protested against that postulate which 
would make certain intimately related phenomena, as heat, 
light, etc., different in their nature from the great majority of 
things which we are familiar with ; but notwithstanding this, 
the author had, or supposed he had, a high respect for science, 
and, so far as he had thought of it, supposed that he was a 
believer in evolution. That is, he supposed evolution to be 
the best thought of the more advanced thinkers, and, if so, was 
inclined to accept it. With such sentiments as these, after 
having determined to write a novel that should deal largely 
with philosophy and physics, the author, with the intention of 
using the information for such a book, began a review of those 
subjects which in an active life of business and of literature in 
a very different field, had been largely neglected since college 
days. It took but a short time to perceive that a large part 
of the physics and philosophy of science is not only entirely 
without evidence, but also manifestly erroneous, and that this 
is especially true in regard to the undulatory theories and the 



VI PREFACE 

principle of evolution ; and hence the book, which was intended 
to be a structure built upon the principles of science, has 
become largely a criticism of science. 

But we think that all, whether scientists or laymen, will per- 
ceive the justness of the criticisms, for the inconsistencies and 
absurdities of the undulatory theories, when pointed out, are 
too transparent to be avoided, and not only the want of evi- 
dence to support evolution but a perception as open as the 
day, and which amounts to positive knowledge, that things are 
made in a very different way, leaves no alternative but to dis- 
card all of these impossible theories and accept nature's way 
of doing things. Not how some scientists or all scientists 
think the universe might be made, is the question, but how 
it is made. 

We are aware that it is very difficult and in some if not 
many cases impossible for those educated in a system of either 
politics, science, or religion, to relinquish tenets that they have 
always been instructed in and supposed to be correct. As 
years ago the Rev. Horace Bushnell, one of the great thinkers 
of America, and perhaps the greatest mind intellectually that 
the continent has yet produced, said to the writer: "It is 
almost impossible to get out of a rut; and," he added, 
"when we do get out we are always getting in again." It is 
therefore a slow process for the world to leave the paths, 
however erroneous, in which it has long traveled, and many 
who succeed will be constantly slipping back. Still things are 
made right and not wrong, so that finally truth prevails. Thus 
the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, taught in science and 
upheld by authority for more than two thousand years, was at 



PREFACE Vli 

last superseded by a system far more consistent and perspicu- 
ous, though, as taught by many scientists, still bearing seeds of 
error. For nothing can be more senseless than the idea of 
attraction at a distance. But now as the undulatory theories 
disappear and the correct conditions of matter as it recedes 
from our view are understood, it is to be hoped and expected 
that the great secrets of electricity, magnetism, and gravitation 
will be discovered, — as, by this book, has been the great secret 
of sound, — and even beyond these the material conditions of 
thought and the emotions. 

A list of authors quoted in this book appears in the index. 
We are particularly indebted for information to the Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia, and the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

JOSEPH BATTELL. 

Bread Loaf Inn, 
Ripton, Vt., 
May i, 1901. 



IMTRODUCTIOW. 



FALLEN'S MOUNTAIN, the scene of this novel, is mostly in 
*— ' the towns of Warren and. Lincoln, Vt. It is one of the 
highest, possibly the highest, of the Green Mountain range — 
something over 4000 feet. It is still very largely covered with 
forest, and the upper portion of it with the original spruce, 
whose dark green hue, extending formerly over all her moun- 
tain ranges, gave to Vermont her name. The author is very 
happy to be able to say that he has succeeded in purchasing the 
larger part of this mountain, some 4000 acres, and has arranged 
so that it may be permanently kept as a park for the benefit of 
the citizens of Vermont, and all others who may be disposed to 
visit the charms of its location, or to behold the wonderful views 
from its summit. There is no handsomer scenery in the world 
than that of Vermont, and few prettier hamlets than those of 
Warren and Lincoln. 

All illustrations are of Vermont scenery, except that in views 
from Ellen's Mountain a large part of New Hampshire and a 
very considerable portion of New York and possibly some of 
Canada are seen. Of the photographs from which the illus- 
trations are made, a number of the best, including those of 
Winter, Ice-Bound, Camel's Hump from the East, Smuggler's 
Notch, Mansfield Mountain, and the winter scenes from Ellen's 
Mountain, were by Mr. Robert Wilkinson, of Montpelier, Vt. 
The half-tone plates are from the well-known firm of Messrs. 
C. J. Peters & Son, Boston. 



- 




LIST OF lUmSTRATIONft 



PART 1 

Frontispiece. 

Log Cabin, Ellen's Mountain, Near the Summit, ix 

West from Ellen's Mountain, Lake Champlain and Adiron- 
dack^ in Distance, ....... i 

Ellen, ." ■ 14 

"The Elm that Lives Above Our House." — (See page 7), . 25 

Mountain Road, 37 

South from Ellen's Mountain — Bread Loaf Mountain at 

Right, 49 

" Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise." 

Springtime, . . ..61 

North from Ellen's Mountain — Camel's Hump and Mans- 
field Mountain in Distance, . . . .... 73 

Reflection, 85 

Among the Green Mountains, 97 

Hill Road, Warren; — Ellen's Mountain in Distance, . no 
Smuggler's Notch, Mansfield Mountain, . . . .123 

Warren, 133 

" Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the vale." 

Runaway Falls, . . .146 

Upon the Rocks, Ellen's Mountain (No. i), . . .152 

In the Rye, . . . 158 

A Vermont Glade, . . . ■ . . . . .169 
Vale in Warren, . . .181 

The Silent Cliff, 194 

" For the strength of the hills we thank Thee, our God, our fathers' God." 



Xll 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Valley East of Camel's Hump, 

Woodstock, 

In the Warren Woods, 

On the Islands, Lake Champlain, 

Mountain Forests in Winter, 

"He giveth snow like 

Ellen's Mountain, Winter, . 

Winter on Ellen's Mountain, 

Ellen's Mountain from the West, 

Near the Log Cabin, Winter, 

On the Warren Hills, . 

Gathering Trilliums, 

Meditation, 

PART II 



wool. 



Ellen, 

Summer, ...... 

Winter Scene in Vermont, . 
Mountain Stream, 

Northwest from Ellen's Mountain, 
Southwest from Ellen's Mountain, 
Southeast from Ellen's Mountain, 
Northeast from Ellen's Mountain, 
Mountain Forest, .... 

Among the Brakes, 
Ellen's Mountain from the East, 
Adirondacks and Lake Champlain, 
By the Old Stone Wall, Warren, 
Bread Loaf Park, . . „ 

View in Warren, .... 

West from Ellen's Mountain, 
Autumn, 



208 
219 
229 

242 
254 

267 / 

279 

292 

305 ' 

319 1/ 

333 

345 



12 



25 ; 
37 

5i y 
61 

74 ' 

86 

96 
109 
121 

L33 

144 

157 i- 
168 
182 
193 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Xlll 



Vermont Hills, .... 

■Ice- Bound, 

A Pastoral Scene, 
Mountain, Dale and River, . 
Camel's Hump from the East, 
Morning, 

" Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops." 

May Among the Mountains, . 

Evening, 

Winter from Ellen's Mountain, . 

The Mountains in Winter, . 

A Winter Scene from the Mountains, 

Upon the Rocks, Ellen's Mountain (No. 2), 

"On every height there is repose." 

Mountain Valley, . . 

Ellen's Mountain, Near the Summit, 

A Vermont Meadow, 

" Far from the madding throng's 

Contemplation, .... 
Maple Grove, Warren, 

A Mountain River, 

" * * * the whole might seem 
The scenery of a fairy dream." 

Winter, 

Edith, 

Among the Flowers, 

Finis, . 



ignoble strife.' 



206 
217 
230 

2 39 
253 
266 

277 
289 
303 
3i3 
326 

335 

349 

362 .> 

373 ■'■■- 

3&3 
397 
409 

421 

433 : * 

443 - 

459 \y 



ERRATA. 



In several places in this book a singular noun or pronoun 
has been joined to a plural verb (as, if it were ; if he were; 
etc.). 

The writer was particularly careful not to do this, but sev- 
eral such corrections were made in the proof reading, to cor- 
respond to supposed best usage, and so crept into the text. 

As the author does not wish to be a party to what he con- 
siders a most undesirable, indefensible, and essentially erro- 
neous construction ; and as also the trend of public opinion is 
unmistakably to abandon such construction ; this explanation is 
inserted. 



PART I 



THE CREATION 




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OR 

THE WHISPERINGS ©F AW ©i® PINE. 



i. 



HOW did I get up here on this high mountain, do you ask? 
I was born here. My ancestors were here before me. 
It is our home, this mountain-top. They came here from the 
valley below, I suppose, — at least the greater part of our family 
have always dwelt in the valleys. But those that came upon 
the mountains found the soil deep and strong, and thrived on 
it, and I grew up with the rest of them, only a little nearer to 
these rocks. And as the years went by I have become stronger 
and taller, until now I am the largest of all the pines upon thi^ 
mountain. And thus I stand up here winter and summer, my 
heavy branches covered the year round with myriads of green 
leaves, keeping watch, not only over the mountains, but over 
the valleys which lie at either side of me ; the great wide valley 
to the west, and the smaller valleys at the east, that cluster 
among our hills and make this country so beautiful. 

Other mountains are visible from here besides the range I 
am on. The highest but farthest away are at the northeast. 



2 ELLEN OP THE 

Those at my west are the nearest, and very distinctly to the 
southwest, ii the day is clear, a third group can be distin- 
guished. These last, I hear, have become quite renowned, 
from a tale that is told of one Rip Van Winkle, who fell asleep 
upon them and did not awake until twenty years had passed 
away, and then could hardly recognize the scenes and the 
people about him. The old Pine has lived many twenty 
years, and in that time seen many changes, but these have 
all come so gradually that few, if any, astonished me. I 
have seen the valleys themselves change, from a wilderness to 
the homes that now adorn them ; but to me it did not make 
much difference. It pained my heart, to be sure, to see the 
great pines disappear, as most of them have ; but death and 
decay always come, and what we cannot prevent we soon learn 
to accept. And now I have become interested in the farms 
and villages that appear where formerly grew great forests of 
pines. 

You see the lake that glistens at my west, how like a thread 
it starts far to the south, and how beautifully it widens at its 
northern end, where many islands, some extending long dis- 
tances and covered with farms and villages, grace its waters. 
It is the mirror of our mountains, and it is, too, the mirror of 
those mountains that lie beyond it, at many points piercing the 
sky. Upon this lake formerly there passed only the Indian 
canoe ; later the batteaux of the French, who entered it from 
Canada; then, as commerce increased, the white-sailed sloops 
and schooners, followed by the steamboat. This last for many 
years, trim and elegant, has sailed over these waters, the smoke 
curling above it by day, while at night its glittering lights send. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 3 

their rays far up upon our mountain-tops. You may not see, 
but the old Pine knows that this lake is connected with the 
great river that flows from that wonderful system of lakes 
which penetrate the American continent, pouring its volume 
of dark-blue waters far into the north, until they enter the 
ocean. 

Greater changes have come upon the land. At first, stages 
passed below. Then the railroad was built, that you can see 
continuing in such straight lines, and soon upon it appeared the 
engine with smoke rising as from the steamboat, and drawing 
a train of cars. The old Pine has noticed, too, though I cannot 
see it very distinctly, that another railroad has been built along 
the lake on its western shore. 

To all these changes the old Pine has become accustomed. 
There is not now nearly so much travel upon the lake as before 
the railroads were built. The cars make better time than the 
boats ; and the trains glide on through the winter, while the 
lake is a frozen plain of snow. 

To the east I have seen similar changes occur, though I can- 
not mark so perfectly their course. For here the view is 
much obstructed by hills and mountains. 

Of the distant mountain ranges the old Pine knows but little. 
I do not often concern myself with what is going on beyond my 
immediate vicinity. This may not have been always so, but in 
late years I have become so much interested in the valley 
directly to my east, that I give but little attention to the rest of 
the world. There is nothing in this valley itself so very 
remarkable, although it is an exceedingly pretty one, as are 
many others that I look down upon. But in it rests a home 



4 ELLEN OR THE 

that centres the affection of all who are acquainted with its 
inmates. You can see it now as it shows on the lower hills 
Avhich help to form the valley. Even from here you may 
notice that it is more handsomely adorned with trees and 
plants, and more tidily kept than the other homes that we 
can see. 

Twenty-three years ago a gentleman came to town and pur- 
chased the farm where this home is. It was said that he had 
traveled considerably abroad, and had some reputation as an 
author. Shortly after this purchase he married the daughter of 
a neighboring clergyman, and, with his wife, moved upon the 
farm, that from its location was always an unusually attractive 
one. Two years later the cottage was built, where the three 
sisters were born who have brought to this valley so much of 
happiness and delight. 

When the first child began to play upon the lawn, it came 
from the elm that stands beyond the house that her name 
was ELLEN. Three years more and a second child was old 
enough to walk, not so winsome and agile as the first, but all 
the flowers and the grasses of the valley agreed that she was 
very beautiful. 

In the meantime Ellen wandered in the fields, and long dis- 
tances down the road. The old Pine saw her and loved. For 
I noticed how true her step was, and I noticed the thousand 
acts of kindness that she showed to tree or brook or stone or 
flower. She moved with the power of love, always considering 
the wants and happiness of others, and, as a necessary sequence, 
— for nature is full of surprises, and makes no omissions in the 
distribution of her rewards, — everything loved Ellen. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 5 

And so Ellen grew, each day adding to her graces and her 
good report. Then the word was spread over valley and 
mountain that Ellen had another sister. A few months after, 
death first entered the cottage, gathering to his fold the hus- 
band and father. Thus came sorrow and mourning. But as 
the months and years flew by, brighter colors again prevailed 
and song and laughter were heard anew. 

At an early age all the sisters attended the district school. 
Here, as everywhere, almost from the start, Ellen was the 
leader, guiding, directing, encouraging, ordering, so that the 
old Pine was not surprised to perceive that when still very 
young she had become the teacher. 

As yet she had not ascended our mountain. But I had seen 
her often look up here, and I noticed that as she grew older 
she tramped more and more through the valleys, and explored 
further and further up the hills, so that I was not very much 
surprised one day to see her emerge from the bushes upon 
our rocks. But I was surprised when I saw how dazzlingly 
perfect was this child of the valley. She bounded to the 
highest point of rock and gazed at the wonderful pano- 
rama. For a long time she looked ; then, descending, ap- 
proached me. 

"And who are you, great, big old tree, pray tell me?" 
she said. 

"I am the old Pine," I answered, "that has watched over 
these valleys since long before you were born." 

" And have they changed very much? " she asked. 

"They have changed," I replied, "from a forest to the 
countrv vou now see." 



6 ELLEN OR THE 

"Then there were no girls like me when you first knew 
them? " 

" None," I answered. 

"But there were a great many beautiful pines lifting their 
tops above the other trees?" 

"Yes," I answered; "and most of them are gone, and 
instead are the farms and villages." 

"But the streams," she said, "flowed then as now; the 
clouds rose as lightly, and the storms beat as loudly, did they 
not, old Pine? The sun, too, shone by day, and the moon and 
all the innumerable stars by night, uttering their noiseless light, 
precisely as they do now?" 

"Yes," I said. 

"So that the principal difference is in the homes that abound 
where once was forest, and the people that occupy them ?" 

"Yes," I said; "and now will you not tell the old Pine what 
your name is, and where you come from?" 

" My name is Ellen," she said, "and I come from yonder 
pretty valley. That house down there among the trees is my 
home." 

"But," I said, "I have noticed three children playing about 
that house. Perhaps the other two are your sisters." 

"Yes," she said, "they are my sisters." 

"And what are their ages?" I asked. 

"One of them is thirteen, the other eight." 

"And what is your age?" 

"I am sixteen," she answered. "Don't you think I am a 
pretty large girl for my age? Mother says I am, and the elm 
that lives above our house said I was the tallest girl in the valley. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 7 

Do you know the elm that lives above our house, Mr. Pine?" 

" Only by sight," I said. 

"He's a very polite tree," she continued, "but I like the 
beech better, that's down in the meadow near the brook, where 
the path turns to come upon this mountain." 

"And why do you like the beech better?" I asked. 

"Because he is quieter," she replied, "and raises so many 
nuts for the squirrels. What do you do, Mr. Pine, up here on 
this mountain-top?" 

"I praise God," I said, "from whom all blessings flow." 

"And how do you do this?" she asked. 

"By performing the duties of my life," I answered. "The 
old Pine knows no other way in which it can be done." 

"And aren't you going to ask me, Mr. Pine," she said, "to 
sit down in your house and get rested? I would like to know 
if hospitality isn't one of the duties of your life." 

" It must be one of the duties of every life," I answered. 
"Will you please take your hat off and be seated?" 

"And where shall I put my hat," she asked, "or where shall 
I be seated? " 

"Why," I answered, "you can throw your hat upon the 
rocks, and sit right down here by my trunk, or anywhere you 
like under the broad shadow of my limbs." 

" Very well, Mr. Pine," she continued, "I will hang my hat 
upon these rocks and sit down on this stone. And now I think 
it must be one of your duties to entertain me, for I have 
come a long way to visit you. It was hardly more for 
Columbus to sail away upon the ocean in quest of an un- 
known land, than for me to venture into the great forest and 



8 ELLEN OR THE 

come up here. And you haven't praised me a bit for either 
my courage or my achievement. Don't you think, Mr. Pine, 
that I deserve some praise?" 

"You certainly do," I answered, "and the old Pine will 
hasten to compliment you upon your bravery, courage, and 
beaut}'." 

"And why my beauty, Mr. Pine?" she asked; "there has 
been nothing said about beauty. Will the old Pine please tell 
Ellen what the beautiful is?" 
"Thou art the beautiful," I said. 

" I am not the beautiful," she said ; " nor does Ellen think 
it is a compliment to be called the beautiful. Have you not 
read : 

( Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good, 
A shining gloss that fadeth suddenly, 
A flower that dies when first it 'gins to bud, 
A brittle glass that's broken presently, 
A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower, 
Lost, faded, broken, dead within an hour.' " 

"And what art thou, sweetheart, then?" I asked. 

"There is something better than the beautiful, old Pine," she 
said. 

"And art thou that which is better than the beautiful?" I 
asked. But she did not answer. 

"Old Pine," she continued, " please tell me why you called 
me the beautiful. And then please tell me what the beau- 
tiful is." 

"I have called you beautiful," I replied, "because you are 
•beautiful. Never has the old Pine seen such beautv of form or 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 9 

feature. The old Pine thinks that anything is beautiful in so 
far as it is adapted to the purposes for which it was created. ' 

"And pray, Mr. Pine, for what purpose do you think that I 
was created?" 

"You were created," I said, "to make the world better, hap- 
pier and more beautiful, now and in coming generations. 
Thou art of infinite worth — 'the ever womanly that draws us 
above.' " 

"But," she said, "the old Pine almost takes Ellen's breath 
away with so much of compliment. The ever womanly should 
be and must be the ever good. Ellen is very willing to be called 
the ever womanly." 

"And," I said, "the old Pine sees that your mind is equal to 
the beauty of your person — that you are fitted for the highest 
station, and must become a superb and accomplished woman/" 

"Oh, stop, old Pine! " she cried. "Ellen doesn't know what 
you mean by these words ; but if you mean aught that con- 
nects with wealth and its vanities they are worse than idle. 
She hates all that." 

"But," I said, " Ellen, the old Pine knows too much to sup- 
pose that you would care for the frivolities of life. The great- 
est of all accomplishments is the knowledge of one's duties. 
Ellen would be superb to the old Pine whatever she did or 
wherever she went. Now the old Pine thinks she will be called 
to the higher spheres of life, and he knows that she will adorn 
whatever station she may occupy." 

"Please stop. Mr. Pine. Can't you see that Ellen doesn't 
like such flattery? Don't you see that it annoys her? I love 
my home and all its surroundings. And when I am grown up 



IO ELLEN OR THE 

— if I live to grow up — I hope to keep the same home, or have 
another like it among these hills. Ellen wants no higher sphere 
than she has now. She doesn't think that there is any higher. 
The highest sphere is the sphere in which we serve God best. 
This can be any sphere. And certainly there could be none 
where it ought to be more easily done than in our own beau- 
tiful valley, and among these sublime mountains." 

"Then, Ellen," I said, "you think there is no better field for 
life and its development than here?" 

"There can be no better," she replied. 

"And how would you live this life, Ellen?" I asked. 

"Just as I have lived it, Mr. Pine. I would try to make 
some improvement each da}'. If the beautiful sun shed its 
light over our sweet valley, I would be out with it gathering 
health and wealth." 

"But supposing it rained, Ellen?" 

" When it rains I work indoors, old Pine, unless there is some 
object to go out in the rain. Ellen isn't much afraid of rain. 
Quite often I look up at it and let it kiss my cheeks ; it seems 
so funny." 

"And if it snows, Ellen? " 

"Ellen cares less for snow than she does for rain, old Pine. 
I most always go out when it snows. I love to put my feet in 
it and let it cover my socks, and get up on my dresses, and my 
cloak, and my hat, and crawl down on my cheeks, and get into my 
eyes, and up my wrists, old Pine, and all over me. I just love it." 

"And the nights, Ellen?" 

"The nights arc pretty good to work in, old Pine, especially 
the winter nights. I think, old Pine, that ever)' one ought to 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE II 

make some improvement every day. It is work that brings 
success, old Pine." 

" But what is success, Ellen?" 

" In life, old Pine?" 

" Yes, in life." 

"The being useful, I think, old Pine." 

" To whom, Ellen? " 

"To all, old Pine." 

"And how useful, Ellen?" 

"By doing good." 

"And what must be the preparation, Ellen?" 

" It cannot be too great, old Pine. And so, now, hear what 
Ellen says, and don't ask her any more questions. The secret 
of success is work. And Ellen is always at work, except 
when she is at play, or talking to you. I would add every day 
to my store of knowledge, old Pine. I would add every day, 
if I could, to my store of health. And if I were older, and had 
the opportunity, I would add every day to my store of wealth, 
for so, too, I would become strong, and better able to lead a 
useful life." 

"Made for quite a thrifty girl, Ellen," I said. 

"I guess so, old Pine. So please don't ever annoy me again 
about suggestions of pomp and nonsense, for I hate them. 
And I would rather a thousand times, yes, a million times, be 
a useful girl spinning flax than a useless queen." 

" Why stop at a million, Ellen?" 

"I don't stop at a million, old Pine. Words cannot express 
the difference between what is useful and what is useless. So, 
now, good-by, Mr. Pine." 



12 ELLEN OR THE 

" Good-by," I said; '-'but the old Pine doesn't like to be 
misunderstood, and least of all by thee. If possible he cares 
less for pomp or nonsense than Ellen does herself. Why 
shouldn't he? Of what use would display be to me up here 
upon this infinitely grand old mountain? — the pride of splendor 
or the affluence of wealth ! The old Pine measures all these for 
what they are worth ; if unwisely used to obtain happiness, 
worse than nothing. So, too, in regard to office : only honor- 
able or desirable when properly obtained and justly adminis- 
tered. And nothing can be more pitiful than pride of birth, 
unsustained by merit. 

' The rank is but the guinea's stamp, 
The man's the gowd for a' that.' 

And Ellen has rightly criticised the useless. But all of 
this leads up to the great questions, does it not, of what life is, 
what its object, and what becomes of it?" 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



II. 



^HPHEN Ellen will not say good-by," she said, "for the old 
* Pine has opened a most interesting discussion. And 
Ellen will sit clown again ; and you shall talk, old Pine, and 
answer those questions. Please now begin, for Ellen is all 
attention. What is life ? " 

"It is a permission," I said, "to do what one will for a lim- 
ited time. Its principal attribute is a power of choosing." 

"The old Pine is quite ingenious," she replied, "but Ellen 
thinks there is a better answer." 

"Then Ellen shall tell the old Pine. What is life?" 

" It is a creation," she said. 

"But if life is a creation," I said, "there must be a creator." 

"Yes," she said, "there must be a creator." 

"And there must be a designer; for it is impossible that 
anything can be created until first it has been designed." 

" It is unquestionably impossible," she replied, "to our under- 
standing. For in this world whatever is created is always first 
designed. Nothing intelligible or useful can come without 
design. Design precedes and must precede all creation. It is 
impossible for the human intellect to conceive of any different 
conditions in the greater creation. There, too, design must 
precede creation, and hence there must be a designer and 
creator. And this designer and creator is God." 



1 6 ELLEN OR THE 

" But, Ellen," I said, " here on earth there arc many design- 
ers and many artisans. Indeed, all sentient creatures seem 
endowed with something" of this designing faculty. Could this 
not also be true in the greater creation?" 

" Unquestionably," she replied, "there are man}' designers and 
many artisans besides those that exist on earth. Ellen has no 
doubt that every world teems with them." 

"And," I said, "the number of these worlds is very large." 

"Yes," she said, "like the sands of the seashore, they 
are innumerable." 

"Then why does Ellen say that the designer and creator is 
God, thus making one intelligence perform what the reasoning 
would show might be the work of many?" 

"Because," she replied, "it could not be the work of many, or 
even of more than one. For everything is in perfect harmony, 
showing unity of design." 

"But," I said, "may not the universe, just as it exists to-day, 
with all its power of reproduction, have existed from eternity, 
and is it not possible that this universe is God? For cer- 
tainly Ellen knows that it exists to-day, nor can she tell when 
its existence began. How, then, does she know that it may not 
have existed forever ? " 

"Ellen will tell the old Pine why she does not think this uni- 
verse to be God, but instead, God's creation. Ellen sees that 
man is endowed with a certain kind of creative faculty ; that 
many are the things which he designs and makes. But Ellen 
is not sufficiently a fool to suppose that man alone has this power, 
especially when' on every hand she sees innumerable evidences 
of the very highest inventive and creative skill. It is impos- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I J 

siblc, old Pine, that man should think and create and God not. 
Mr. Locke well saws : 

* If nevertheless any one should be found so senselessly arrogant as 
to suppose man alone knowing and wise, but yet the product of mere 
ignorance and chance ; and that all the rest of the universe acted only 
by that blind hap- hazard ; — I shall leave with him that very rational 
rebuke of Tully, 1. ii. De Leg. to be considered at his leisure : 'What 
can be more sillily arrogant and misbecoming than for a man to think 
that he has a mind and understanding in him, but yet in all the uni- 
verse beside there is no such thing? Or that those things, which with 
the utmost stretch of his reason he can scarce comprehend, should be 
moved and managed without any reason at all?' " 

"But," I said, "Ellen, if man has this power to design and 
build, and also inferior animals, as a bird its nest or a beaver its 
dam, and in fact all animals, even the most infinitesimal, made 
visible to us only by the use of a powerful microscope ; and if, 
as Ellen admits is most reasonable and certain, there are other 
beings and probably very many with perhaps infinitely 7 greater 
creative faculty than man, certainly Ellen must admit that the 
things, even the many marvellous things which she perceives, 
and perhaps the most marvellous, may have been designed and 
created by such beings. Ellen cannot deny this. Man can 
make a watch or a piano ; then why might not an angel or 
some superior being, but not God, create the different animals, 
as well as the spheres which hold their orbits so wonderfully in 
the heavens, or an)' or all of those things which we see?" 

"The old Pine is again quite ingenious," she replied, "to throw- 
doubt upon Ellen. Hut when the old Pine admits, as he has to 



I' 8 ELLEN OR THE 

admit, that throughout this vast universe there is and must be 
unity of design, he admits and declares that there is but one 
God, the designer and creator of all things. Nor does it make 
any difference whether God does this altogether alone, or, in part, 
through beings whom He has created. His rule, and His alone, 
is evidenced in all. But not only is this true through that won- 
derful thing, intelligence, which invents, or power which exe- 
cutes, but even more in those moral qualities, without which, as 
Ellen thinks, this creation was impossible. For as there is no 
beauty equal to the beauty of holiness, so there is no strength 
like the strength of righteousness, or power so infinite as that 
of love." 

"And yet, Ellen, is it not possible that intelligence and 
righteousness should exist independent of any universal 
intelligence?" 

■• It is not possible," she said. " How would the old Pine 
suggest that it could be possible?" 

"In our system of this material universe," I answered, "the 
sun is the great source of light, and the moon and the planets 
shine with light reflected from it. And yet that which we 
call artificial light is possible, unconnected with the sun. But 
intelligence is the light of the spiritual world, is it not? Then 
why might not that in a similar manner exist independ- 
ently? In other words, why might not intelligence be gen- 
erated anywhere, and at any time, and in any amount, by 
some process, whatever it might be, adequate to its production, 
and entirely independent of any existing intelligence, if such 
there were, and which under this supposition presumably owed 
its origin to a similar cause?" 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 9 

"And the old Pine thinks," she said, "that the spiritual world 
is similar in its organization to the material?" 

"The old Pine was asking why it might not be," I replied. 

"And he thinks that intelligence may come and of necessity 
come from certain conditions entirely unconnected with any 
existing or previously existing intelligence, and that in such 
intelligence the emotions are included ? " 

"Yes," I answered; "and the pre-existing conditions to 
intelligence or emotions would appear to be life. When that 
exists, they exist to a smaller or greater degree. May we not 
then suppose that life produces intelligence? " 

"But whence comes life?" she said. "The old Pine 
must see that life must itself exist before it can produce 
intelligence or anything else. And Ellen thinks the old 
Pine will see that there is and must be some Being self- 
existent and eternal, by whom all things are created. But 
only intelligence can create, for only intelligence can design, 
,and we have seen that design precedes and must precede all 
creation. And so, old Pine, we see that the beginning is and 
must be a creative power, self-existent and eternal ; and that 
this power is and must be a Supreme Intelligence." 

" So Ellen thinks that the soul is intelligence, and that all 
intelligence is derived from a Supreme Intelligence which is 
self-existent and eternal?" 

"Yes," she said; "and the old Pine's supposition is that 
there is such a thing as life uncreated by intelligence, and which 
produces intelligence. What can he mean? It isn't pos- 
sible that he thinks the soul as frail as the connection of 
the life with the bodv, which is of all things the frailest, 



20 ELLEN OR THE 

certainly perishing soon, and in danger of perishing every 
moment. Surely the old Pine is too sensible to confound the 
existence of the body with that of the soul. Or can it be 
possible he supposes that power which created all things 
to be dependent upon something brittle as glass and irri- 
descent as a passing shadow? As well might the old Pine 
imagine that the universe was made by a painted image upon a 
piece of crockery. Ellen is ashamed of the old Pine. Did' he 
never think that God, who created the universe, governs it, and 
not a sparrow falls to the ground without His knowledge? 
The old Pine is too sensible not to know that nothing can 
prosper without care and attention. But there is and can 
be no care and attention except through intelligence^ 
And no care or attention to govern this infinite universe 
except from Him who made it. We know, then, that God 
exists because we know that He must exist. That the uni- 
verse for a single instant was impossible without Him. 
Something would be going wrong. Ellen is quite ashamed 
of the old Pine. Then does the old Pine suppose that the 
intelligence which he suggests comes from life lives after the 
life is gone? " 

"That is not the idea of the scientists," I said; "but rather 
that mind is or may be a mode of motion, brought about by 
life, and rising from the brain very much as steam from water, 
or as fragrance from a flower." 

"And the old Pine thinks that this stuff would have creative 
power? " 

" The old Pine doesn't think at all," I said. " He is only 
asking questions, and letting Ellen do the thinking." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 21 

"And Ellen thinks he is getting crazy," she replied, "with such 
foolish questions." 

" But the scientists ask such questions," I said, " as though 
they could not be answered, and they are very great men." 

"Very ignorant men," she said. "For, as Socrates said: 
1 It isn't those who do not know and know that they do not know 
that make the trouble, but those who do not know and think 
they do.' " 

"Well," I said, "the old Pine was striving to get the facts." 

"Asked Ellen lots of foolish questions," she said. "Ellen got 
awfully scared about him. Afraid he was losing his wits." 

" But, Ellen, the old Pine doesn't know of any way to get at 
the truth but by trying. It is the bold mariner only who 
makes discoveries." 

"And doesn't the old Pine know," she said, "that there are 
no discoveries possible about things which are self-evident? 
The old Pine was awfully crazy and Ellen was dreadfully fright- 
ened ; afraid he would never get out of it. He talked just like 
a scientist." 

"The old Pine felt sure that Ellen would answer all his ques- 
tions," I replied ; " nor was he disappointed. For she was even 
more thorough than he expected, and vehement enough to anni- 
hilate a whole army of pines, and drive them over a precipice." 

"And Ellen hopes," she said, "that the old Pine will never 
ask any more such questions." 

" He doesn't mean to," I said, " for Ellen's answers showed 
how flimsy, hollow and unmeaning they all are, if intended to 
question the existence of God. It would be only a waste of 
time to continue them. But Ellen has proven from the mate- 



2 2 ELLEX OR THE 

rial universe God's existence. Can it not be proven also from 
the spiritual world? " 

"It can, indeed," she answered; "for these two divisions of 
'existence are so harmonized and blended together that every 
complete argument from the one is sure to be reflected and sus- 
tained by an equally complete demonstration from the other. 
And thus we know that there is a God, and that there is but one 
God, and that He is eternal, because when He created us He im- 
parted within us that knowledge. It is a part of our existence ; 
for God is everywhere and He is in us. And whatever powers 
He may relegate to the things of His creation, or however much 
He may permit them to perform their pleasures or act their 
parts, always His infinite presence rests upon and pervades 
everything which is created." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 23 



III. 

( ( r I ^HOU art indeed better than the beautiful," I said, "even 

* as wisdom is better than rubies. And now will Ellen 

tell the old Pine what we know of God's power and purposes?'' 

" ThatHispower is infinite, we know byHisworks," she replied, 
"for they are infinite in extent and character. And so, too, His 
benevolence is attested in His works, though perhaps not to us 
in all His works, for there is much in them which we cannot 
explain." 

"Among which Ellen would include evil, would she not?" 
I said. 

"What is it that the old Pine calls evil? " 

" Why, that which brings pain or trouble," I answered, "to 
any or to all." 

" Ellen doesn't think the old Pine is very wise," she said. 

"And why doesn't Ellen think the old Pine very wise?" 

" Because he believes in evil, or talks as if he did. The old 
Pine has assented to the argument, which is unerring, that God 
created all things, — unfolded them from His Beingr as Ellen 
thinks. And does the old Pine suppose that God would create 
evil?" 

"But, Ellen dear," I said, "my own sweet, lovely Ellen, what 
can the old Pine do but accept what on every side seems so 
evident. Ellen ought not to abuse the old Pine because he tells 
the truth." 



24 • ELLEN OR THE 

" And Ellen thinks," she said, " that the old Pine isn't very 
wise ; but certainly Ellen couldn't abuse him when he calls her 
such pretty names. There is no evil, old Pine. There can be 
none. To think it is to doubt the goodness or the power, or 
both, of God." 

"But surely, Ellen, you would not deny that evil exists in 
this world ? " 

"I do deny it," she said. "It is impossible for it to exist." 

"Are not poverty and disease evils?" I asked. 

"They certainly are not," she replied, "or they would not 
exist." 

"And death, — is that not an evil?" 

"The least of all," she said; "for it is universal among 
created things. It is a mistaken judgment that calls anything 
evil; because we do not understand its whole intent. It is true 
that that which we call evil exists in this world, and if the exist- 
ence here were all there was of existence, life could well be said 
to be born to evil as the sparks fly upward. But existence does 
not end here, old Pine. There is no existence that ends here, or, 
as Ellen thinks, that ever ends. Nothing is destroyed of sub- 
stance or of spirit. It exists forever, and, with changing force 
and varied conditions, performs its functions in the universe. 
The necessities of creation may produce what we call evil, but 
we may be sure that these necessities are all ultimately har- 
monized. If this were not true, old Pine, you would not stand 
here upon this beautiful mountain, nor would I be engaged in 
this conversation ; for there could be no creation. 

'All nature is but art unknown to thee, 
All chance direction which thou canst not see • 




The Elm That Lives Above Our House 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 27 

All discord harmony not understood, 
All partial evil, universal good. 
And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite ; 
One truth is clear, whatever is, is right.' " 

"But, Ellen," I said, "it isn't possible that wrong is right." 
"It isn't possible," she answered, "that God made things 
wrong. Ellen can doubt the judgment of men, but she cannot 
doubt that of the Almighty. We may be sure, old Pine, 
that there is nothing wrong in this great creation. Any 
such criticism is the assumption of the fool who makes 
it, that he could create this universe better than God, when 
in truth he is not able even to conceive it, or to create 
the smallest particle in it. Ellen does not know why 
life should destroy life. She does not know why man 
should delight in cruelty and inhumanity to his fellow- 
man ; but that all this which we call evil, and even that 
known to us as sin, ultimately results in good, there can 
be no doubt. To a great extent creation proceeds by a 
system of antitheses : as light and darkness, motion and 
rest, pleasure and pain, health and sickness, attraction and re- 
pulsion. And even as it would be impossible for the concave 
to exist without the convex, or the round without the flat, it 
may be impossible for anything in creation to exist without its 
opposite. Thus it may be impossible for the good to exist 
without the bad." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, if the Creator is all powerful and all 
wise, surely His creation might be made without such necessity, 
might it not? If there is such a thing as a necessity of crea- 
tion, then there is something greater and stronger than the 



2 8 ELLEN OR THE 

Creator; and this necessity, in whatever it consists, becomes 
the ultimate authority, does it not?" 

" God creates, and all necessities are of His making," she 
replied, "so that, old Pine, there is and can be but one infer- 
ence, that the manner in which the universe is created is the best 
possible ; that the antitheses which we have mentioned take 
place, because in such way the highest degree of excellence is 
attained. We perhaps may not fathom the wisdom of such 
design, although in the moral world it is easily supposable that 
the best character must come from freedom of choice and inde- 
pendent action. It follows, then, old Pine, that all things con- 
duce to the highest excellence, or universal good, but nothing 
which so conduces can be evil, and therefore there is no evil." 

"But, Ellen, the world has wrestled for ages with the 
problem of the cause of evil, suggesting various but never any 
satisfactory reason." 

" Very true," she said; "and nothing could be more hope- 
less than an effort to explain what does not exist. The best 
article that Ellen found on evil she found in the Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia. In this article it says: ' After the light of 
science has explored the secrets of nature, and shown how 
all its apparent anomalies are merely manifestations of a 
comprehensive harmony, the idea of evil is dispelled from the 
material and merely organic creation. " Whatever is, is best" 
is seen to be everywhere the law of this creation.' So, Ellen 
thinks, it is equally true, and unquestionably true, the law of 
the spiritual or moral creation." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 29 



IV. 

^DUT wha t becomes of life, Ellen?" I asked. 

*— * "The old Pine means the life of man?" 

"Yes." 

" It would seem to consist of two parts, would it not, old 
Pine?" she said, — "the body or house which is inhabited, and 
the spirit or soul which inhabits it." 
, " That seems to be a reasonable supposition," I replied. 

" It is very evident what becomes of the body, whether of 
a man or of a tree, Mr. Pine," she said. " With all its marvellous 
machinery, infinitely more perfect than anything that man can 
make, it soon perisheth." 

"But does it perish, Ellen?" I asked. 

" In the restricted sense of the word, it does," she said, 
14 though more accurately it yields to the chemical forces of 
nature and becomes something else : 

' Imperial Caesar, dead and turn'd to clay, 
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away.' " 

"And the soul, Ellen?" 

44 The soul is something very different, old Pine, not only 
because it thinks, but also because of its connection with a 
greater Soul, to which, although more or less restrained by the 
body, it constantly and involuntarily turns for assistance and 



30 ELLEN OR THE 

advice. And this intercourse of the soul with a greater Soul 
is of such transcendent importance that in its contemplation 
everything material dwarfs into insignificance. The spirit 
within us rises to the eternal and immortal, and beholds that 
beautiful land where mercy, love, and truth reign forever." 

" Ellen is describing heaven," I said. 

" Yes," she replied, " but the old Pine must always remember 
that heaven is within, and that its eternal beauties belong to 
the domain of the soul, and not of matter. 

"We look out upon the material universe. The view of 
landscape is limited, but space is not limited. Beyond yon 
furthest mountain the eye penetrates to the horizon, a distance 
that we cannot measure ; or if we look up we see the sun many 
millions of miles away. Night comes and a thousand millions of 
suns are seen receding beyond each other, growing less and 
less, until all are lost in the infinite distance. But could we, as 
doubtless there are beings that can, pass over this vast space, 
unquestionably the same infinity of distance would lie beyond. 
Indeed, with telescopes of different magnitude we are enabled 
practically to do this and verify the expected result. This is 
a suggestion of the material world. But far more wonderful, 
and without doubt equally extending and changing, is the 
spiritual world. 

" In the material world everything has its bounds. Thus 
there is the element of water, nor can man live in it. Then 
comes the eleriient of air, in which man lives. But those ani- 
mals which live in water would mostly die in air. This element 
of air is soon passed, merging into what we call ether, in which 
neither those animals that live in the sea or in the air can live. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 3 I 

Nor do we know what lives in this more etherealized element, 
nor how far it extends." 

" The ether extends through all space, does it not, Ellen? " I 
asked. 

" Something extends through all space, but whether it is the 
element that lies directly upon or supersedes the air, we do not 
know," she said. "There is a condition in space, so far as space 
is perceivable by us, which permits light and the heat of the sun 
to pass with great certainty and speed. And this condition, we 
have reason to believe, extends far beyond our ability to see. 
But we do not know how many different elements there may 
be in this vast space, nor whether the light or heat travels with 
the same speed through every part of it; neither do we know 
how this space may be inhabited." 

" It isn't inhabited at all, is it, Ellen? " I asked. 

" And why does the old Pine think that it isn't inhabited at 
all? Does not the knowledge that we have go to show that 
every part of this universe is inhabited? Certainly here on 
earth, in air, in water and on land, life abounds. Does the old 
Pine suppose any part of the universe uninhabited because we 
are not capable of perceiving its inhabitants? Ellen does not 
think this at all; but rather that there exists a class of beings 
adapted to this new element which we call ether. And as those 
animals which live in air are far superior in intelligence and 
condition to those which live in water, so may there be beings 
inhabiting the ether far superior to those that live in air. It 
is no proof whatever that a thing does not exist because we 
cannot see it. The microscope and the telescope show us how 
limited is our vision. 



32 EL LEX OR THE 

"Sir Isaac Newton, in a paper read before the Royal Society, 
in 1757. suggests, in an hypothesis, an ethereal medium, of 
much the same constitution as air, but far rarer, subtler, and more 
elastic. * * * ' But it is not to be supposed,' he says, ' that 
this medium is one uniform matter, but composed partly of the 
main phlegmatic body of ether, partly of other various ethereal 
spirits, much after the manner that air is compounded of the 
phlegmatic body of air intermixed with various vapors and ex- 
halations.' 

-'Mr. Newton further suggests that this complex spirit or 
ether which by its elasticity is extended throughout all space, is 
in continued movement and interchange : ' For,' he con- 
tinues, 'Nature is a perpetual circulatory worker, gen- 
erating fluids out of solids, and solids out of fluids; fixed 
things out of volatile, and volatile out of fixed; subtile 
"out of gross, and gross out of subtile ; some things to 
ascend and make the upper terrestrial juices, river and 
the atmosphere, and by consequence others to descend for 
a requital to the former. And as the earth, so perhaps may the 
sun imbibe this spirit copiously, to conserve his shining, and 
keep the planets from receding further from him ; and they that 
will may also suppose that this spirit affords or carries with it 
thither the solan- fuel and material principle of life, and that the 
vast ethereal spaces between us and the stars are for a sufficient 
repository for this food of the sun and planets. * * * Thus, 
perhaps, may all things be originated from ether.' 

" Hut Ellen thinks that this vast space filled with a fluid or 
fluids finer than air may also be inhabited by innumerable 
beings corresponding to this more subtile element. By the 



WHISPERINGS OF AX OLD PINE 33 

soul, perhaps, old Pine, when it has left the body. And this 
still supposing Mr. Xewton was right that the sun from such 
source draws the necessary supplies or additional supplies for 
its combustion. For so, too, does fire with us, or what we call 
artificial heat get its support, at the same time and from the 
same source that our life is supported. 

" Now, old Pine, from this material creation turn to the soul. 
It, too, has its bounds, as Ellen thinks, expanding from one 
condition into another. And as an island at sea, or a continent, 
is lifted above the waters and entirely removed from their 
action, so in the great kingdom of mind, new conditions are 
constantly reached, entirely removed from evils with which 
others are beset. 

" And therefore it is most reasonable to believe, and indeed 
it would be most difficult not to believe, that there are succes- 
sive states of the soul which terminate in a perfect existence. 
There can be no doubt about this, old Pine. It would be im- 
possible for it to be otherwise. It would be inconceivable to 
suppose that a Power great enough to create the soul should 
cease its work until a perfect result, was reached. But such 
perfection is Heaven." 

11 But why," I asked, " Ellen, should such a soul as you con- 
ceive, bearing within itself the principle of immortality, have to 
do with a body that perisheth?" 

" Ellen doesn't know," she said. "In some way it subserves 
the purposes of creation." 

"If Ellen wouldn't abuse the old Pine, he would like to ask 
some more questions." 

"Ellen never abused the old Pine," she said. "She just 



34 ELLEN OR THE 

loves him, because he is good and brave, and calls her lots of 
pretty names." 

" Doesn't Ellen see," I said, " that life exists in many different 
phases? And doesn't she see that in all these phases it has 
similar characteristics? Thus, a plant has life. All plants have 
life. And animals have life — fishes, fowls, and beasts. Then 
there comes man, with a larger degree of intelligence. But in 
this they are all alike — that they start with an embryo, or 
seed, within which is contained the principle of growth ; very dif- 
ferent growth, but alike in this, that its nature and extent is as 
entirely hidden to mortal eye as though it did not exist. And 
yet the possible future growth of this embryo is exactly defined 
and measured. Whence, then, does it come?" 

"The power of growth, or the growth itself?" she asked. 

"Then these are different?" I said. 

u Certainly they must be different ; for the growth will only 
come as opportunity enables it. The power of growth awaits 
such opportunity, but may perish before the opportunity 
comes." 

"The power of growth, then, is the life?" I said. 

"It would seem so," she replied. 

"This power of growth it is, then, that dies?" 

" So it would appear." 

"And what is it?" 

" Ellen does not know. She perceives what the old 
Pine says is true that all life has a similar rudimentary con- 
dition. That it contains within itself first the principle of 
growth and then that of reproduction ; that this is equally true 
of the plant and of the animal ; and it is true of all plants and 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 35 

all animals. But the thing most wonderful, and, as Ellen thinks, 
an explanation of future existence as well as this, is that in the 
small compass of a seed is contained the possibility of growth. — 
But the old Pine ought to talk, for he knows more than Ellen. 
He's lots bigger than Ellen, and ever so much older, and ought 
to know more." 

"He's a great, stupid old tree," I said, "and Ellen is young, 
beautiful, and bright." 

"Ellen thinks she has been very stupid," she replied, "and 
she thanks the old Pine for his suggestions. For this is certain: 
that the fact of future existence is no more wonderful than that 
of present existence. For future existence, like the present, 
may be a growth ; the only difference in this respect 
being that we are able to perceive the development of the pres- 
ent existence, but not that of the future. That life should 
change to another existence, and then continue its journey, 
is not more remarkable than that in the seed should 
be held the possibilities of this existence. For what can be 
more invisible to us than the plant or the animal that is con- 
tained in a seed or embryo?" 



ELLEN OR THE 



V. 

' [3 UT the old Pine wants to ask another question, only he's 

4— ' afraid that Ellen will abuse " 

" Ellen never abused the old Pine. She said she was ashamed 
of him, because she couldn't help it. He was so foolish." 

"Well, then, the old Pine wants to know if this similarity 
isn't complete in all life. In plants there is circulation of sap ; 
in animals a corresponding circulation of blood. Flowers are 
the souls of plants, emitting fragrance instead of thought and 
emotions. All these effects are evolved as the finished product 
of the life." 

"The old Pine uses the word life as synonymous with soul?" 

"He does here," I said, "for he perceives when the life goes 
the soul has gone, and he does not know why the soul shouldn't 
be the life and the life the soul." 

" Again, Ellen doesn't think the old Pine very wise," she 
replied. " For it is most evident that the body is a machine of 
which that which we call its life is a part. Then must it be for 
the use of the soul. For it can have no other use, and it is 
incredible that such a machine could be made except for use." 

"And if this is so," I asked, "in its use, is there a better 
way ? ' ' 

"There is unquestionably," she said, "a better and a best; 
as well, perhaps, a poorer and a poorest. For many if not 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 39 

all, of those things made by nature for use, ma}' be used differ- 
ently. And so in the things made by man there is a best way 
to use them, but they can be used in other ways." 

"But, in life, what is this best way?" I asked. 

"Those who seek may find it," she replied. " Ellen thinks 
the}' will find it. For our life is one of obligations and duties, 
every one of which is accurately and perfectly denned, and 
the power given to us to perceive them if only we endeavor to. 
These obligations and requirements appear to refer to a future 
existence as well as the present. It would be impossible not 
to so interpret them. For in moral as well as physical things, 
there is a natural sequence. We cannot escape from the 
consequences of our actions. As we sow we must also reap. 
Speaking of the material world, the eminent French mathe- 
matician and astronomer, Laplace, says : 

' Present events are connected with the events of the past by a link 
resting on the obvious principle that a thing cannot begin to exist 
without a cause which produces it. This maxim, known by the name 
of the Principle of Sufficient Cause, extends likewise to events with 
which it is not supposed to come in contact. We must, therefore, 
regard the present condition of the universe as the consequence of its 
former, and the cause of its future, condition.' 

" Ellen recognizes the power of mind to alter anything 
within its control, everywhere and at any moment, for this is 
one of its principle functions. But it cannot alter anything 
beyond its control. God can alter all things, for He made 
them all and the}' are all subservient to His power; but we can 
alter but few things. Yonder worm that is determined t;o 



40 ELLEN OR THE 

crawl tip Ellen's dress can alter a few things, but not near so 
many as Ellen can, and Ellen cannot change many in this great 
creation." 

" But what are the conditions of improvement here on earth ? " 
I asked. "Does not development constantly take place?" \ 

"There may be a certain kind of development," she answered, 
"but the laws of environment are very fixed, apparently eternal, 
Thus, the laws which govern the existence of the human 
race are both determinate and enduring. Our record of its 
existence, so far as it extends, shows no perceptible difference in 
the organization. In this regard there is no development. 
General conditions remain substantially the same." 

"But, Ellen," I said, "the scientists claim that the human 
race is undergoing a remarkable change ; something phenom- 
enal from past conditions. Indeed, their contention is that it 
has been developed up from the lowest form of animal life, or 
from primitive matter." 

"Ellen will not discuss now," she said, "the principle of evo- 
lution which the old Pine refers to. So far as we can judge 
from history, the human race, certainly as exemplified by 
individual character or achievement, and making proper 
allowance for its undulations, holds about the same average. 
It would be difficult in any age to find men of greater ability 
or superior character to Moses, Joshua, David, and many others 
mentioned in the history of Israel; whilst such men as Zoroas- 
ter, Buddha, Confucius and Christ, exemplify the perfection of 
man, where the human merges into the divine. 

"In all the history of the world probably no race for its 
numbers has surpassed the Greek in intellectual culture. In 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 4 1 

Egypt, Chaldea and China the arts and sciences flourished. 
So, too, the Roman history, as well as that of nearly every 
other nation of any moment, is replete with the names of 
eminent scholars and eminent men. In all these respects 
the whole history of the world, so far as known, stands at a fair 
average. Ellen takes but little stock in the guesses or 
opinions of any as to that part which is not known. 'They are 
bad— all/" 

"But, Ellen," I said, "surely you will admit the superiority 
of the human race at the present time, and especially of 
Americans? " 

"Ellen would not want to claim any such superiority," she 
said. " It is the same race that produced a David, a Caesar, and 
a Shakespeare, a Galileo and a Newton. Ellen rejoices at the 
discoveries of recent years both in science and in the useful arts. 
Perhaps at no time in the world's history have the practical 
results of invention been so remarkable as now, including as 
they do the accumulated discoveries of centuries. The old Pine 
has appealed to Ellen's patriotism, nor would it be possible for 
him to appeal in vain. American liberty has developed the 
wonderful resources of our country, and extended its influence 
over the world. To be an American is to be the peer of all, 
and Ellen honors and loves that land where the ' pith o' sense 
and pride o' worth' are king.* It remains now for us to 
preserve our heritage, for which we are largely indebted 
to the happy combination of two accidents, one the prac- 
tical settlement and development of a continent of splendid 

* This was written before the terrible betrayal of American principles in the 
Philippines by Mr. McKinley's administration. 



42 ELLEN OR THE 

capacity, which can happen but rarely in a world's history; 
the other, its partial settlement by the English race, and espe- 
cially that part of it the most advanced in their ideas of per- 
sonal liberty as well as of religious worship. The old Pine can 
well see how different would have been the results if the 
Spanish, who discovered, had alone settled in America. The 
old Pine must remember, too, that however bright are the 
present prospects of its civilization, the world has but com- 
paratively recently emerged from a period of many centuries, 
which, because of its ignorance and superstition, is spoken 
of as the dark ages. And the old Pine must also remember 
that in all comparisons we are the historians, and those 
with whom we compare ourselves are not only dead, so 
that they are unrepresented, but even the record of their 
achievements is largely obliterated by time. Nor has the world 
as yet succeeded in making a civilization that will do away with 
perhaps that greatest of all evils, if not crimes — war. 

"Ellen is afraid that the old Pine will look in vain within the 
records of history for any very wonderful improvement in the 
condition and capacities of the human race. The possibility of 
improvement, as Ellen thinks, is individual instead of general, 
and connects with future existence through the gateway of 
death." 

"But are there any evidences of immortality?" I asked. 

"The evidences are innumerable," she replied. "For all the 
knowledge that we have teaches us that not anything perishes. 
It has come to stay, old Pine, every particle of existence." 

"Well," I said, "that would seem to be certain, and to 
cover immortality in some form. But material things we 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 43 

know are subject to change. Is there evidence that the soul 
is not? " 

"The old Pine wants to know if there is evidence of the 
immortality of the soul?" 

"Yes." 

"There is, indeed," she said; "nor does Ellen think that 
there are any limits to this evidence, but that always it is 
abounding if we search for it. Thus we have the evidence of 
our aspirations. For Ellen knows she has no aspiration here 
on earth for aught material or spiritual without its counter- 
part existing, — the thing that she aspires for. Does she want 
food? There is such a thing as food. Drink? There is drink. 
Pleasure? There is pleasure. Light? There is light. Love? 
There is love. Ellen knows of no desire, and she does not 
believe it is possible to have any, unless the thing desired has 
existence. And is it possible that the only exception is in our 
aspiration for the Infinite, or for immortality? It is not pos- 
sible. The very fact that we think of God is proof of his exist- 
ence ; or that we aspire to immortality is proof that there is 
such a thing as immortality. This is in the nature of knowl- 
edge, old Pine." 

"It is indeed, Ellen," I said. "It is clearly impossible 
for the mind to invent the uncreated. It can imagine 
nothing except what exists. It can place parts of dif- 
ferent things together and thus in imagination or reality pro- 
duce a new image, but any part of this image must be com- 
posed of something existing. But does it follow that because 
the soul aspires for something or imagines something, it will 
obtain it?" 



44 ELLEN OR THE 

"Most certainly it does not," she said ; " but Ellen thinks it 
does follow that it may attain it. For it is impossible that 
God should deceive." 

"And what is the lesson from all this, Ellen?" I asked. 

" It would seem to be most plain," she said, " would it not, 
old Pine ? We know that God exists, infinite and eternal. We 
know that He creates all things and governs their existence by 
laws in which there is no shadow of turning. That in our own 
action we have a large amount of choice, but that it is impossible 
to escape the results of any course we choose. There can be 
but one lesson, which he who runs may read, and that is the 
importance of so choosing as to best advance our eternal as 
well as our temporal welfare. No one escapes or can escape 
the effects of the choice, although circumstances may affect and 
very largely affect the choosing. In this latter case Ellen has 
no doubt results are altered to correspond with these circum- 
stances, for in all this infinite creation, whether it affects this or 
a future life, we may be sure that everything is adjusted to con- 
form with the eternal principles of justice, love and truth; 
But no one can escape from the consequences of his acts. As 
we sow, we must also reap. And this law, which decides our 
lives for time or for eternity, is so plain and simple that a way- 
faring man, though a fool, cannot err therein." 

"Then Ellen thinks," I said, "the instruction must be that 
we so choose as to advance our higher and better interests?" 

"It certainly is that," she replied. 

" And this will not permit us to do whatever we may desire? " 

"It will not," she said. "It will permit us to do only what 
our judgment, guided by our conscience, tells us is right." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 45 

"And what is conscience, Ellen?" I asked. 

"That inner guide," she said, "always ready to direct us, if 
we listen to its instruction. Its necessity comes from the dif- 
ferent directions in which actions lead, and its very existence is 
another of the cumulative proofs of continued existence, and of 
the wonderful preparations made by nature for ultimate as 
well as immediate results." 

"But if our future lives depend upon present action, is there 
not some universal principle of direction that all can follow and 
which invariably conducts to the best results?" 

"There is, indeed," she answered; "and it is summed up in 
these words, — that we fear God and obey His commandments. 
In this way and this only does Ellen think that we may live 
forever." 

"But will Ellen tell the old Pine what are the greatest of 
these commandments?" 

"Ellen will tell them," she said; "they are so beautiful: 
'Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with 
all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength : 
this is the first commandment. And the second is like, Thou 
shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. There is none other com- 
mandment greater than these.' These are the words of 
Christ, and the promise that He added is, ' This do and thou 
shalt live.' Good-by, old Pine. I am coming again in a 
few days. It's so quiet up here, and the views are so 
beautiful. Besides, Ellen has found out that the old Pine 
endeavors to do right and be right, and Ellen loves the old 
Pine." 

She turned and was gone. For a moment the old Pine felt 



46 ELLEN OR THE 

a sense of desolation he had never before felt ; but it was only 
for a moment. 

"I guess she will come back," I said. "Of course she will 
come back, because she promised to. What can she think is 
better than the beautiful? Perhaps it is the good. And thou 
art right, my darling; fairest and best among women! Thou 
alone art altogether beautiful ; for the perfectly beautiful must 
be good ; and thou art the GOOD." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 47 



VI. 



j^LLEN came upon our mountain the first time in July. In 
*— ' just about a year she came again. Thoughtfully she 
came over the rocks, passing by the summit coming towards 
me, and when she had got very near, suddenly lifted her head, 
and looking full upon me, said : 

" I came to see you, old Pine — just to see you." 

" It was very good and kind of you, dear Ellen," I answered. 

"I think so, Piney," she replied; "but now I've got here, I 
don't know what to do or what to say. I guess I'd better go 
home." 

"Oh, no, Ellen," I said. "You might go up on the rocks 
and see the views again." 

" But I told you, Piney — didn't you hear me tell you — that I 
came to see you? I hate the views." 

"Ellen!" 

"Well, Piney, I just hate them ! " 

"What have the views done, Ellen?" 

"Nothing, only look cold and ugly." She sat down as she 
spoke, and looked up at me again, her chin resting on her 
hand. 

The wind was moaning through my top and swaying my 
boughs. 

"Ellen, please," I said. 

"What is it, Pinev?" 



48 ELLEN OR THE . 

" The old Pine wishes he had something for Ellen." 

" Ellen thinks he has." 

"What, Ellen?" 

" Good will." 

"The old Pine wishes he had everything for Ellen — everything 
she could want, now and always." , ... , , , , j 

il Why, that's awfully nice, old Pine. It just makes Ellen feel 
at home ; and if she had her trunk with her she would stay 
with you two weeks. She is just going to stay a while, anyway, 
trunk or no trunk. I will make myself comfortable here at 
your roots, lay my head down on this one this way, and go to 
sleep, I guess, for I'm pretty tired." 

" And now won't Ellen tell what she came up for?" 

"Told you once, old Pine — came up to see you." ,;, 

"And what did Ellen want to see me for?" . i 

"I told you once, old Pine, I didn't know." 

"Well, the old Pine doesn't know, either. Did you want to 
talk, Ellen, or want me to talk?" 

"Don't know, old Pine. Don't know anything about,it, only 
that I'm glad I came, because it's such a nice place to sleep. 
Please you take care of me. Ellen is in your care, old Pine." 

"And so I will, my darling," I cried. And the old Pine 
hardly breathed for fear he would disturb her rest. Y,, ; ; 

The sweet wind crept among my leaves, and' the sunlight 
played over my heavy top. ; 

" Old Pine," Ellen said suddenly, " I'm not a bit sleep\v I 
never sleep daytimes. It's a nice place here to sleep, if any one 
wanted to sleep. What is sleep, old Pine?" ,; . ;;,.; »» 

"The old Pine doesn't know," I said. - •.< j ■; • v 



- - 



— 


Z 


n> 




jz 


in 






z 


g 






c 




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Z 






— ■ 


> 






w 


z 

1 


p 
























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VI 


r 




WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE. 5 1 

" It's such a funny, thing, old Pine. It makes one think such 
funny things, and do such funny things. It puts everything in 
such fantastic shapes. Ellen doesn't see what it wants to be so 
absurd for. And Ellen doesn't understand it, what it's for, o|r 
why it is necessacy. What is death, old Pine? " 

"The end of life, I suppose, Ellen. But why do you ask?';' 
"Because it seems to me that death and sleep are alike, only 
sleep isn't as thorough as death. It's a half-way house, isn't 
it, old Pine? 

' The innocent sleep, 
Sleep, that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of care, 
The death of each day's life, sore labor's bath, 
Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course, 
Chief nourisher in life's feast.' 

' O peaceful sleep ! until from pain released 

I breathe again uninterrupted breath ; 
Ah, with what subtle meaning did the Greek 
Call thee the lesser mystery, at the feast, 
Whereof the greater mystery is death.' " 

" The old Pine doesn't know," I said. It's very little the old 
Pine knows about either sleep or death. Perhaps Ellen might 
tell the old Pine." 

"You do not think I could, do you, Piney? Ellen is afraid. 
She did not ask because she knew. She asked because she did 
not know. And she asked because she knew that the old 
Pine knew better than she does if he would talk. But if the 
old Pine wants Ellen to tell about sleep or death she must go 
back, to learn about that which sleeps and dies. What is this 



52 ELLEN OR THE 

body of ours, old Pine? Could there be anything more remark- 
able than that it should be generated and grow? What gives 
it its life, and what is the vital principle which we call life? 
Does it connect with the soul? Is it the soul, or is it some- 
thing entirely distinct, animating the body and fitting it for the 
habitation of the soul? What is the soul, old Pine? Answer 
Ellen any of these questions and she will tell you what dreams 
are, and what death is. Will not the old Pine answer?" 
* " Most willingly I would if I could, sweet Ellen," I said. 
"The old Pine thinks that the body is made for the habitation 
of the soul. He cannot see of what use the body would be 
without the soul." 

" But what is the soul, old Pine? Did it grow with the body? 
Or, what is the mind ? Are the intellectual faculties the soiil, 
or a part of it?" 

"The old Pine cannot tell," I said. "Will not Ellen 
tell?" 

"If Ellen tries to tell," she said, "she will begin with a ques- 
tion which includes all these : What is creation, and how was it 
created? Creation is what we see of the universe, and what we 
do not see. The world and all that is therein, together with 
the heavens and all that they include. We have seen that it 
must have been created by God, and that He of necessity- 
has existed from eternity. From eternity to eternity He 
is God. Then how did He make this universe? Of what is 
it composed? What knowledge of this has He unfolded to us? 

" One key to the mysteries of creation, as Ellen thinks, is the 
innumerable number of pieces or parts of which it is composed. 
Because of this quality is the infinite variety and success of 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 53 

nature's works. For as things become more etherealized, they 
become more and more manageable and wonderful, until at last 
the more remarkable and most remarkable, as known to us, 
take place, the thoughts and emotions. Nor, indeed, would the 
universe otherwise seem to be possible. And so, too, because 
of the innumerable pieces from which they are made, the different 
things in nature can be largely broken or disunited without 
destroying them. Air, water, earth can be separated indefi- 
nitely, and even those things that have life are capable of being 
largely dissected without that life being destroyed. In man all 
the organs of sense may be destroyed, and the life continue. In 
both plants and animals many limbs may be cut off without 
destroying, and often without injuring the life. 

"And we see, too, in the creation of the universe, things 
are made very largely, if not entirely, by a system of 
antitheses. Thus we have life and death, joy and sorrow, good 
and evil, bitter and sweet, true and false, hard and soft, mind 
and matter. And thus, too, in electricity there are two kinds 
or phases, known as positive and negative, and wherever one is 
produced, just as much of the other is also produced. Indeed, 
all nature abounds in these antitheses or opposites, through 
which alone, apparently, its manifestations are intelligible, if 
not possible. 

"There is another wonderful principle in full action every- 
where — infinity. It meets us in space. It meets us in time. 
It meets us in the material from which things are made. 
Whatever way we look, whichever way we turn, the 
workings of the infinite are visible. And we should always 
remember that through this principle of infinity only, can the 



54 ELLEN OR THE 

infinite 'be explained. Forgetting this fundamental truth, many 
scientists and superficial thinkers advance the atomic theory 
of creation." 

"And what is that, Ellen?" I aslfed: 

"It is," she said, "that a limit in size is finally reached of the 
material or particles from which the universe is made. And 
thus with indescribable folly does this class assume to measure 
the infinite by the finite ; and when they reach — what is very 
easy to reach — a limit to their own understanding, mistake this 
to be the limit of that which is infinite. 

" But the most wonderful of all things which Ellen sees in 
nature is that there is nothing of the miraculous in her works, 
but that everything has its adequate cause, and so far as we 
are able to perceive these causes, they are simple, and intelli- 
gible to our minds. Ellen has a right to believe, and does 
believe, that this is true throughout all of nature's infinite 
works. 

"Another marvelous thing in nature everywhere visible is the 
order, or system, which pervades her works, nor does Ellen 
think that this order stops with man's ability to perceive it, — 
the little limit of our vision; but that not only those things 
which we see are in order, but equally so those 'that we do 
not. It is impossible that this should be otherwise. Order is 
universal in nature." 

"And, Ellen," I asked, "is not this universally recognized?" 

"It is not recognized at all," she said, " by that vast army of 
scientists who profess to tell the secrets in nature's arcana. 
They are a slim lot as Ellen thinks, being unable to perceive 
this first and greatest of nature's laws." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 55 

"But surely, Ellen," I said, "you must be mistaken that they 
do not recognize it." 

"Not at all, Ellen is sorry to say. On the contrary they 
fly from it at the first opportunity, with pretty much all 
the world following, presenting an illustration on the largest 
scale of the blind leading the blind. For everything known in 
nature is formed of what we call matter, combined and held 
together by forces, and subject to laws of disintegra- 
tion. The things known make a most harmonious, com- 
plete, and wonderful demonstration of the system adopted 
by nature for the creation of the universe. It would be 
hardly possible, with her known tendency to universal 
order, that she would have, or could have any other. 
And yet the very first phenomenon which occurs, where the 
processes are partly hidden — that of sound — is at first assumed 
and then declared by this vast army of scientists, remarkable only 
for knowing so many things that are not so, to be formed under 
an entirely different system, by what they call a mode of motion, 
unaccompanied with its appropriate substance. A more gratu- 
itous assumption it would probably be impossible to make, and 
certainly in the way that it is proposed a more absurd one 
could not be made." 

"You refer, Ellen, to the undulatory theory of sound?" 

" Precisely that, old Pine, and the remainder of the brood, 
that of light, heat and color. But we must not and cannot 
dwell on this now. Ellen will come again, if the old Pine 
wishes, and discuss this subject." 

" The old Pine would certainly be most pleased both to 
see and hear Ellen." 



56 ELLEN OK THE 

"All right, Piney," she said. "We will consider next the 
material from which, or of which, things are made. This mate- 
rial is called matter. The text books teach that it has impene- 
trability, extension, divisibility, porosity, compressibility, elas- 
ticity, mobility, and inertia. And then they speak of forces as 
manifesting themselves to us by the changes which they pro- 
duce, or tend to produce, in the motion of matter." 

"And does not Ellen accept all of this?" I asked. 

"Some of it she does not accept," she said; "and she has 
but little use for any of it, because it tells her nothing of the 
essence of that thing which is called matter. What Mr. Locke 
says is to her far more satisfactory, although it is only a decla- 
ration of ignorance. Thus Mr. Locke says : 

' When we speak of any sort of substance, we say it is a tiling having 
such or such qualities ; as, Body is a thing that is extended, figured, 
and capable of motion ; Spirit, a thing capable of thinking : and so 
hardness, friability, and ductility of iron, we say, are qualities to be 
found in a magnet. These, and the like fashions of speaking, intimate 
that the substance is supposed always something besides the extension, 
figure, or other observable ideas, though we know not what it is. 
Hence, when we talk or think of any particular sort of corporeal sub- 
stance, as horse, stone, etc., though the idea we have of either of them 
be but the complication or collection of those several simple ideas of 
sensible qualities which we find united in the thing called horse or 
stone, yet because we cannot Conceive how they should subsist alone, 
nor one in the other, we suppose them existing in and supported by 
some common subject ; which support we denote by the name Sub- 
stance, though it be certain we have no clear or distinct idea of that 
thing we suppose a Support. The same happens concerning the opera- 
tions of the Mind ; namely, Thinking, Reasoning, Fearing, etc., which 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 57 

we, concluding not to subsist of themselves, nor apprehending how they 
can belong to the Body, or, produced by it, are apt to think the actions 
of some other substance, which we call Spirit ; whereby yet it is evi- 
dent, that, having no other idea or notion of matter, but something 
wherein those sensible qualities which affect senses do subsist, by sup- 
posing a Substance wherein Thinking, Knowing, Doubting, and a power 
of reasoning, etc., do subsist, we have as clear a notion of the Substance 
of Spirit as we have of the Body ; the one being supposed to be (with- 
out knowing what it is) the Substratum to those simple ideas we have 
from without, and the other supposed (with a like ignorance of what it 
is) to be the Substratum to those operations we experiment in ourselves 
within. It is plain, then, that the idea of corporeal Substance in matter 
is as remote from our conceptions and apprehensions as that of Spir- 
itual Substance or Spirit ; and therefore from our not having any 
notion of the Substance of Spirit, we can no more conclude its non- 
existence than we can for the same reason deny the existence of the 
Body ; it being as rational to affirm there is no body because we have 
no clear and distinct idea of the Substance of matter, as to say there is 
no Spirit because we have no clear and distinct idea of the Substance 
of a Spirit.' 

" And again : 

' The little bodies that compose that fluid we call water are so ex- 
tremely small, that I have never heard of any one, who by a microscope 
(and yet I have heard of some that have magnified to ten thousand, nay 
to much above a hundred thousand times) pretended to perceive their 
distinct bulk, figure, or motion : and the particles of water are also so 
perfectly loose one from another, that the least force sensibly separates 
them. Nay, if we consider their perpetual motion, we must allow them 
to have no cohesion one with another ; and yet let but a sharp cold 
come, they unite, they consolidate, these little atoms cohere, and are 
not, without great force, separable. He that could find the bonds that 



58 ELLEN OR THE 

tie these heaps of loose little bodies together so firmly ; he that could 
make known the cement that makes them stick so fast one to another ; 
would discover a great and yet unknown secret : and yet, when that 
was done, would he be far enough from making the extension of body 
(which is the cohesion of its solid parts) intelligible, till he could show 
wherein consisted the union or consolidation of the parts of those 
bonds, or of that cement, or of the least particle of matter that exists. 
Whereby it appears, that this primary and supposed obvious quality of 
body will be found, when examined, to be as incomprehensible as any 
thing belonging to our minds, and a solid extended substance as hard 
to be conceived as a thinking immaterial one, whatever difficulties 
some would raise against it. 

So that, in short, the idea we have of spirit, compared with the idea 
we have of body, stands thus : the substance of spirit is unknown to us : 
and so is the substance of body equally unknown to us. Two primary 
qualities or properties of body, viz. solid coherent parts and impulse, 
we have distinct clear ideas of : so likewise we know, and have distinct 
clear ideas of two primary qualities or properties of spirit, viz. thinking, 
and a power of action ; i. c, a power of beginning or stopping several 
thoughts or motions. We have also the ideas of several qualities, 
inherent in bodies, and have the clear distinct ideas of them ; which 
qualities are but the various modifications of the extension of cohering 
solid parts and their motion. We have likewise the ideas of the several 
modes of thinking, viz. believing, doubting, intending, fearing, hoping ; 
all which are but the several modes of thinking. We have also the 
ideas of willing, and moving the body consequent to it, and with the 
body itself too ; for, as has been shown, spirit is capable of motion. 

Lastly, if this notion of immaterial spirit may have perhaps some 
difficulties in it not easy to be explained, we have therefore no more 
reason to deny or doubt the existence of such spirits, than we have to 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 59 

deny or doubt the existence of body ; because the notion of body is 
cumbered with some difficulties very hard, and perhaps impossible to 
be explained or understood by us. Fori would fain have instanced 
any thing in our notion of spirit more perplexed, or nearer a contradic- 
tion, than the very notion of body includes in it : the divisibility in 
infinitum of any finite extension involving us, whether we grant or deny 
it, in consequences impossible to be explicated or made in our appre- 
hensions consistent : consequences that carry greater difficulty, and 
more apparent absurdity, than any thing that can follow from the 
notion of an immaterial knowing substance.' 



60 ELLEN OR THE 



VII. 

T~7 LLEN then thinks that there are two substances in 



CLLE 
^ all 



nature, and only two, — Mind, the great creative 
power, from which all else comes ; and matter, which 
includes everything which does not think. This, then, is 
Ellen's definition of matter, and the old Pine must remember it. 
Some scientists would appear to suppose three substances — 
the spiritual, the material, and that which they call the ether, 
or perhaps electricity. But Ellen cannot see the necessity for 
more than two great divisions, — that which thinks and that which 
does not; the spiritual and the material; mind and matter; 
that which uses and that which is used. And the old Pine 
mustn't forget at all, as she discusses these questions with him, 
what she means by matter. 

"Perhaps the most important thing that we know of in 
matter is the quality by which it can be separated, or divided. 
All bodies known to us we find are formed from the com- 
bination of different elements in different proportions, 
and owe their peculiar qualities to such combinations. 
Just as much and in a precisely similar way as different 
articles of food owe their peculiar qualities to the kinds 
and amount of ingredients which enter into their compo- 
sition. Thus, a loaf of bread, a pie or cake. This is all 
simple enough, and is the way or process by which all 
things, so far as we know, whether natural or artificial, are 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 63 

made. With universal experience showing that this is the 
only method of creation, Ellen thinks that we have a right to 
consider this as one of those things of which we have knowl- 
edge. And the old Pine will see at a glance, without using 
mathematics, that with the immense number of ingredients that 
exist, the number of different things which can be made by 
such a method is infinite. 

"Consider only the matter of cooking. What the number of 
possible ingredients is we do not know, though those in use 
might doubtless be numbered. We have flour, and many dif- 
ferent kinds of flour. Meats, and many different kinds of 
meats. Spices of many different kinds. Those things that are 
sour of many different kinds, and those things that are sweet of 
many different kinds. And Ellen mustn't forget eggs. And 
there are very many kinds more — all the vegetables, nuts, and 
fruits. Well, the old Pine knows that by the different mixtures 
of these different things a different article of food will be 
created. These different articles may be very similar because 
quite similarly mixed, or they may be very different. But all 
are created by this process of mixing the different possible 
ingredients that exist. And there is no other way to make 
them. So it is throughout all nature with everything which is 
created. It makes no difference what. It is composed of the 
combination of different elements as they exist in nature, and 
in different proportions. Nor is there any other possible way 
by which anything can be made. This is nature's system of 
creation. And Ellen supposes because there could be no 
better, no other is used. The old Pine will see how marvellous 
is its capacity. Whether the things used are limited or not, 



64 ELLEN OR THE 

absolutely without limit, to our understanding, are the things 
which can be made. Flowers, colors, sounds, worlds, moun- 
tains, seas. Things of all sizes and all possibilities." 

"But, Ellen," I said, "sounds and colors are very different 
from those other things which you have mentioned, are they 
not?" 

" And how different," she asked, " any more than all are differ- 
ent? Odor appeals to the sense of smell, and sound to that of 
hearing. As Ellen said, in this great scheme of nature for the 
creation there is no limit to the possibilities of result. Food 
generally is quiescent, but many things effervesce, and some 
fly to long distances. Ellen has lost her yeast because of this. 
And often cider and beer, or other similar articles of food and 
drink, escape with much noise and confusion. But they 
were all composed by this same great law of creation — the 
mixing of different ingredients. Nor is it possible that any- 
thing that exists, Ellen cares not what it is, can be made in any 
other manner. Thus, too, dynamite or gunpowder, harmless 
to look at to those that know them not, as they lie quiescent, 
carry within themselves a power of expansion that will burst 
the strongest rock. Yet are they made by this same law of 
combination, and the articles of which they are made, uncom- 
bined, are harmless. There is no possible question in regard 
to all of these, — sound, color, odor, light, heat, electricity, mag- 
netism, — all are the results of the combinations of matter." 

"And how many kinds of materials are there, Ellen," I 
asked, "from which things are made?" 

"According to the ancients," she said, "4:here were four ele- 
ments — earth, air, fire, and water. Thev accounted for the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 65 

difference in the temperament of persons as well as the char- 
acter of substances by the proportions in which these four ele- 
ments were mixed. The number has been constantly increased 
until at present it is claimed by scientists that there are seventy- 
three, which the\- have as yet been unable to resolve. Ellen 
thinks they know but little what the real facts may be in regard 
to them. Some scientists have suggested that all might come 
from a single variety of matter; different combinations being 
formed by the different motions." 

"And what does Ellen think?'" I asked. 

"We cannot follow far," she said, "the character of matter; 
but knowing the uses it is for, and the manner in which it is 
used, we can judge somewhat of that character. From it 
everything in this material universe is made by laws of combi- 
nation. And so, too, they are all destroyed through disinte- 
gration ; and in each operation every particle of matter used 
must move. And these operations are forever being repeated. 
It is then most evident that facility in movement is a most 
essential part of matter. For it is impossible to suppose that 
the material from which all things in this universe are made, 
is unsuited, or illy suited, to its purpose. It must be the best 
possible. But in no way could this facility of movement in a 
substance be accomplished so perfectly, as that it should con- 
tain within itself the principle of motion. And so Ellen thinks 
that motion is a part of matter, either of all matter, or. of a 
part of it which enters into the combination of all things. 
For she sees that with many combinations of matter, motion is 
produced, as in steam, odor, sound, electricity ; and that from 
others it most easily comes, as in all explosives ; nor does she 



66 ELLEN OR THE 

know of any motion existing in the material universe except 
that which pertains to matter. It would appear, then, to be 
an essential condition of matter. Given such material, and, 
by proper combination, equilibrium or relative rest might 
be obtained ; whilst all the activity of things like gases and 
radiant matter, is explained. Thus, too, the forces of attrac- 
tion and repulsion are accounted for, made out of the mate- 
rial which they fasten together, just as happens with us 
when nails and glue, or mortar, etc., are made from similar or 
the same materials as that which they hold together. It seems 
to Ellen that all motion known to exist can be thus accounted 
for, — that which moves the spheres, and that which moves 
molecules." 

"And can Ellen imagine that the wonderful difference which 
exists in the speed of bodies may be explained by such a 
principle?" 

"She cannot see why not. If matter contains the principle 
of motion, there would seem to be no reason why its speed 
might not be regulated to include every possible degree of 
motion. Certain it is that it is so regulated. And thus we 
have the hardest rocks crumbling so slowly that ages may go 
by before their particles appear to move, although, as Ellen 
thinks, they are all the time moving. And we have also in an 
instant the forces of the sky marshalled upon its nightly plain, 
the brilliant aurora which in a moment may illumine all the 
heavens, vieing in its speed with the lightning. Nor in these 
does Ellen think that we can at all see the possible limits of the 
speed of matter. For however slowly we imagine it to move, 
we can think of it as moving more slowly ; or however fast, as 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 6/ 

going faster. Thus light in a second is calculated to travel 
about 185,000 miles. Why might it not as well, so far as we 
can see, travel a thousand millions, or any other infinite number 
of times that? Thought, indeed, reaches thus into the infinite. 
But the old Pine stays right here upon this mountain, and Ellen 
doesn't go away very far or very fast." 



68 ELLEN OR THE 



VIII. 



ii 



J3 UT the old Pine has always understood," I said, "that 

■*— " motion and matter were entirely distinct ; matter being 

something that existed first in a dead or quiescent state, and 

motion something that was afterwards, and at various times, as 

needed, impressed upon it." 

"Yes," she said, "that has been a common opinion; but 
Ellen can see no good sense or reason in it. In that view 
motion is in the nature of a constant miracle. But God never 
creates that way, but instead always with a sufficient cause. 
The old Pine will see that motion is never separated from 
matter, nor is it possible to conceive of it disconnected from 
matter. So, too, he knows that all matter moves. And thus 
we see that motion must be a part of matter — possibly one of 
the elements of which it is composed." 

"Then it is Ellen's idea that the matter from which all com- 
binations exist is itself compounded?" 

"Ellen thinks that it maybe. It would seem at least to 
have two essences, body and motion." 

"But, if so," I said, "those elements of which it is com- 
posed could not in themselves be called matter. Thus, those 
elements of which water is made, hydrogen and oxygen, are 
not, taken separately, water. Nor are the elements from which 
any compound is made, that compound; but it is only when 
all of them are joined that the compound exists?" 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 69 

"Yes." 

"Then," I said, " if matter was formed from different ele- 
ments, those elements separately could not be matter, and 
therefore must be immaterial?" 

" It would seem so." 

"Then what are they?" I asked. 

" Ellen can not saw But it would appear to be possible 
in such manner to derive the material from the spiritual. 
It has never seemed to Ellen that God made matter out of 
nothing, but that in some way it emanated from Him." 

"But, if motion were derived from the spiritual, might it not 
be able to design and think ; and thus the contention of those 
who think thought the result of motions be maintained?" 

"And so it probably is the result of motions," she said. 
" Ellen has no doubt that thought is woven in the machinery of 
the brain. But not the thinker. The old Pine mustn't 
confuse thought and mind. Nor must the old Pine think that 
all thought belongs to the material world, or that all thought 
is made with machinery such as the brain. If that were so, 
there would never have been any universe. The old Pine 
knows that there may be many kinds of machinery to do the 
same thing, or make the same fabric ; and other and perhaps 
very different machinery to make a very different fabric ; and 
that some of it is much more perfect than other, and makes 
better goods. And so that which manufactures thought in 
this world, or in the material universe, is of very different 
quality. Thus, in animals there exist a great many different 
kinds of machinery, varying in capacity, but unquestionably, as 
Ellen thinks, capable of producing thought, or something 



■JO ELLEX OR THE 

akin to thought. The busy bee would appear to do some 
pretty good thinking. And so there are other animals 
that do, as the ant or elephant. There are, besides, many 
men who do very poor thinking. As regards emotions, 
many animals are exceedingly affectionate, and all show 
more or less kindness for their young or kindred. We may 
then gather that under very many different conditions 
thought is possible. But we know only the more inferior of 
these. How entirely different are the conditions in a higher 
existence we know not at all." 

"And what would Ellen call a higher existence?" 

" Such existence," she said, " as man conceives of but can- 
not reach ; where the absolute good and beautiful and true 
exist; where, indeed, the absolute essence of all desirable 
things exists." 

"And undesirable, too, would they not, Ellen?" 

V Ellen thinks not," she said. "For these, as Ellen thinks, are 
but negative qualities, which of necessity disappear as their 
opposites become perfect ; just as there can be no darkness 
where there is light. As all things become perfect, imperfec- 
tion of necessity must cease." 

"And Ellen really thinks that thought is a fabric made from 
material as goods are made?" 

" Certainly," she said. " Did the old Pine suppose thought 
to be nothing? But, if something, it must be made of some- 
thing." 

"But," I said, " in the formation of matter Ellen did not 
mention extension. The old Pine always supposed that it was 
impossible to conceive of matter without extension." 



WHISPERINGS OF AX OLD PINE 7 1 

"And so perhaps it is," she replied; "but there could be no 
extension without something to extend, neither without motion 
by which to extend it. The old Pine will see that body, and 
action, — motion,- — are what exist in all matter. And Ellen 
would admit that body is and must be extended ; and in that 
sense might be called extension." 

"But, Ellen, the natural status of matter is rest, is it not? 
Behold it in its many forms, as it lies stationary." 

"And how long does it lie?" 

"Why," I said, "if it belongs to life it may lie, so far as the 
old Pine knows, whilst the life lasts; or it may be constantly 
changing." 

"And then?" 

"And then, of course, it is soon affected by chemical 
changes, and disappears. But when it belongs to those 
things that haven't life" 

"As, for instance — what?" 
- "Why," I said, "as a rock, or piece of iron, or anything 
from which the innumerable things which are around us, all 
dead and stationary, unless moved by some outside force, are 
made." 

"And when it so belongs, what finally becomes of this 
rock?" she asked; "or the iron and many other things, as 
cloth, wood, paints, etc., from which all the innumerable things 
that we know are made?" 

"Why," I said, "they finally, even the hardest of them, 
decay and disappear. But the old Pine supposed that it was 
the chemical forces which destroyed them." 

"And what are these chemical forces," she asked, "but 



J2 ELLEN OR THE 

the action of matter on matter? Ellen can see nothing else, 
can think of nothing else, that is at work throughout the 
immensity of this material universe, except the influence of 
matter on matter, from which all decay is, and by which all 
new formation comes. All is resolved into motion, a motion 
of the parts of this material of which everything here is com- 
posed. And the old Pine must see that the essence of this 
material is motion, in which essence, and in which alone, con- 
sist the forces that unite and disunite all things. It is a great 
seething sea of motion, this universe, changing like the fields 
of frozen snow whose millions of diamonds glitter and sparkle 
for a while in the cold sunshine." 

"Then Ellen thinks that all things are evolved out of other 
things? " I asked. 

"The old Pine is awfully stupid," she said. "Ellen thinks 
that all things are made from other things ; not at all evolved. 
Evolution is the changing of one thing to another, or the 
coming of one thing from another, with a certain progression. 
There is nothing of the kind here, but instead the changing of 
many things into many others. The eventual destruction of 
the old, for the material of the new." 

"And that new?" I said. 

"Is formed just as the old was. But all things always are 
under the direct and immediate control of Him who created 
them. Eor in no other way is it possible for mind to conceive 
of the creation and continuance or change of material con 
ditions." 

" Then Ellen thinks the Creator of the universe very different 
from the universe which He has created?" 



I § 

2 8 
p 

3 



En 



~ 







* 





WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PIXE 75 

" Of necessity He must be. Does the old Pine think that 
man is like the machinery which he designs and makes, 
whether such be a jewsharp or a cotton mill?" 

"No," I said; " he must be very different, else the jewsharp 
or the cotton mill would create him." 

"Certainly," she said; "and all creation would be inter- 
changeable, the spade making the man, and the man the spade. 
The old Pine can see very well that it is impossible that such 
order should exist ; that it is impossible for the unintelligent to 
make the intelligent; that it is indeed impossible for anything 
but intelligence to create. Intelligence then, can come only 
from intelligence. There is no other possible source for it. 
Only the fool could ever imagine it to come from the unintel- 
ligent, as only the ignorant could ever think that water will rise 
higher than its source. 

"Such, then, is this thing that we call matter. Ellen thinks 
the principle of motion an essential part of it, as must also be 
that of body or extension. The two, as Ellen thinks, are indis- 
solubly connected, and together form that substance from 
which every material thing is made." 



y6 ELLEN OR THE 



IX. 



a 



T3UT, Ellen," I said, "thou who dazzlest equally with thy 

^— " beauty and with thy wit, — are not the conditions 
governing gravitation, electricity, magnetism, and so, too, 
cohesion and chemical affinity, very different from those which 
rule in ordinary matter?" 

"Everything is different," she said, " because everything is 
differently composed ; but all are made in a similar manner, 
and, as Ellen thinks, from the same general material, and in 
that respect are alike." 

"And is not gravitation a force? and so, too, electricity, 
magnetism, heat, cohesion and chemical affinity?" 

"What does the old Pine mean by a force?" she asked. 

"That which causes motion," I said, "or tends to cause 
motion." 

"And hasn't Ellen just said that what causes motion, or 
tends to cause it, is motion — or, matter in motion? nor is 
there anything else to produce it except mind. That has the 
power of both originating and directing motion." 

"And how does it do this, Ellen?" I asked. 

"Ellen does not know," she said. "We can see, and to a 
certain extent understand, material forces. We watch their 
operations and decipher one after another the laws under which 
or by which they operate. Thus — the screw, the pulley, the 
balance and the wedge; thus, too, electricity, magnetism, heat, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



/ / 



more distant from our perception, and therefore less under- 
stood. But in all of these forces we can detect no power of 
choice. Evidently they all belong to this material sphere ; are 
a part of its machinery; are wholly mechanical. But whence 
comes that power mightier than all motion because able to 
create it, we are ignorant. Yet this much we know: it is not 
simply the invisible ; for by the microscope and in various 
ways we are able to follow much that was invisible, finding 
between it and the spiritual, precisely the same distinc- 
tion that we perceived without such aids. So far, then, as we 
know, the distinction is always maintained. And we may be 
sure that there is an impassable gulf between the two sub- 
stances — the material and the spiritual — even, as Ellen thinks, 
as there is between an engine and the engineer. 

"Ellen doesn't think it possible for the spiritual to have any- 
thing more than a temporary connection with the material. 
She thinks that they are two distinct orders of existence. The 
one as we see it ephemeral and transient ; the other, though 
unseen by us, unchanging and eternal. To this last belongs the 
designing and creating power, including the production and direc- 
tion of motion. But it can operate in the material world only 
through material forces. And therefore whatever it is that moves 
muscle, muscle itself is material, and all its operations are per- 
formed by material forces. And thus we see the operations of 
the spiritual world transformed to the material. Does not the 
old Pine consider steam a force? But he knows that steam is 
composed of matter, which carries within itself, because of the 
nature of the mixture that makes it, a power of expansion. 
And this moving power is a force, itself motion, and causing 



78 ELLEN OR THE 

motion. The other forces, those named by the old Pine, must 
be composed in the same way, for apart from life it is only 
matter that will move matter." 

" And Ellen thinks that electricity is matter?" 
"Certainly," she said. "The old Pine never makes journeys, 
but Ellen has. She went to Montpelier once when she was a 
little girl, and she thought it was an awfully long way. And 
then she went again — it was when papa was alive — and he took 
her to St. Johnsbury, and that was a good deal more than as 
far again, but Ellen saw that the roads led away from St. 
Johnsbury in every direction. Could she have kept on in what 
would have seemed to her an infinity of distance she would 
have gone around the world, and finally, when she least 
expected it, found herself back again at the old home. And so 
Ellen thinks it may be in the long road that leads through 
the divisions of matter. Nature abounds in circulatory meth- 
ods, which in their nature have no end. But whether 
here, by some circulatory method, nature passes back again 
to. her starting place, Ellen does not know ; but she does 
know that the way leads through a domain of new worlds and 
new creations that thus far to us is endless. For the most 
powerful microscope, magnifying one' hundred thousand times 
and more, opens to our vision new creations in every respect 
as complete and as wonderful as those things which with the 
eye we can see around us. 

"And what does this mean, old Pine? It means and it must 
mean that our sensation of size has no real significance in fact, 
— that size is wholly relative and relative to us. And thus, as 
Ellen thinks, there is no absolute large or absolute small, any 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 79 

more than there is an end to the path that leads around the 
world, but all things are large or small, according to the eye of 
the beholder. And so she thinks there is no absolute fast or 
absolute slow, but that all things in motion are fast or slow, 
relatively to the perception of the beholder. Pascal says : 

' Let man investigate the smallest things of all he knows ; let this dot 
of an insect, for instance, exhibit to him in its diminutive body parts 
incomparably more diminutive, jointed limbs, veins in those limbs, 
blood in those veins, in that blood humors, and drops within those 
humors — let him, still subdividing those finest points, exhaust his 
power of conception, and let the minutest object his fancy can shape 
be that one of which we are now speaking — he may, perhaps, suppose 
that to be the extreme of minuteness in nature. I will make him dis- 
cover yet a new abyss within it. I will draw for him not merely the 
visible universe, but all besides that his imagination can grasp, the 
immensity of nature, within the confines of that imperceptible atom.' 

"Ellen does not care especially to repeat the speculations of 
scientists, but of those who think they have discovered the 
"ultimate atom one of the most prominent calculates the 
number of chemical atoms contained in the size of a pin's head 
at the figure 8 followed by twenty-one ciphers. 'So that,' — as 
a French writer has expressed it, — ' if we attempted to count 
the number of metallic atoms contained in a large pin's head, 
separating each second ten millions of them, we should need to 
continue the operation for more than 250,000 years.'" 

"And yet this scientist thought that he had discovered the 
atom?" 

"Yes," she said; "just at this point, like a true scientist, he 
persuaded himself that he had discovered it." 



8o ELLEN OR THE 

"But in all this infinite division Ellen perceives the essential 
qualities of matter remaining the same? " I said. 

"Precisely the same," she replied. "And so the old 
Pine will see how in time we reach the more subtle forms of 
matter, among which are magnetism and electricity. And 
the old Pine will see, too, how we must pass this kingdom 
and go on infinitely beyond it to those other vast kingdoms of 
matter, abounding in the materials from which are made 
thought and the emotions. Nor is this all ; for Ellen sees still 
beyond these the stuff that dreams are made of." 

"And Ellen thinks that dreams, too, are really made of 
material? " 

"Of course they are," she replied. "They couldn't exist if 
they were not made of something, any more than a painting." 

"But how far does Ellen think that division of matter can 
take place?" I asked. 

"Ellen doesn't think," she replied, "that there is any more 
limit to its division than there is end to the line which forms a 
circle. We can never have anything so small but that 
it must have a half; and if, as constantly takes place in 
separation, the half, evolving itself from that which is 
wholly concealed, expands indefinitely, or should it, retreat- 
ing, contract to its original or a lesser space, the prob- 
lem of division would become most intricate. Besides, Ellen 
has told the old Pine that size is entirely relative ; that 
by a change in the manner of perception the infinitely 
small may become the infinitely large, or the infinitely 
large the infinitely small. And there would appear to 
be no limits to the possibility of this transformation. In all its 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 8 1 

directions the old Pine can see the problem lies within the domain 
of the infinite. And Ellen thinks that in some way, though 
she knows not how, nature will reach circulatory methods 
in the division of matter. Here, as everywhere, we may 
be certain that a system exists which will answer every require- 
ment. As Ellen has said before, there are no miracles, but all 
things have a cause, indirectly in that which precedes, or 
directly in the will of God." 

"Then Ellen thinks the order of things may be changed? " 

"Certainly it can be changed by Him who devised it, as 
easily as man can change his plans." 

" And Ellen does not believe, as many scientists teach, that 
matter is finally reduced to atoms, which cannot be divided?" 

"Ellen does not," she answered. "How little does man 
understand the mysteries of creation. We stand here for a 
moment and look off into space, calculating perhaps the dis- 
tance of the farthest known star. To the limited comprehen- 
sion of our minds this seems a great way. And so when we 
contemplate intellectual or moral things, a vast array of differ- 
ent conditions are unfolded to our perception. But Ellen does 
not know — she cannot see, why there might not be, or should 
not be, an infinity of worlds beyond the farthest that we can 
either see or conceive of. Nor can she see, when she knows 
that one star differs from another star in glory, why the condi- 
tions of these worlds might not in an instant change to any 
degree of magnificence and splendor ; why a new heavens and a 
new earth might not burst upon the vision, so that all which 
had preceded it would be but as scattered homes or villages 
in a dreary land, before reaching a great and magnificent 



82 ELLEN OR THE 

city. Nor does Ellen know why also in the spiritual world, or 
world of mind, those phenomena which we see or feel might 
not be succeeded by others infinitely enlarged in their capaci- 
ties and enjoyments ; why in some way and at some time may 
not appear to us new beauties and new glories, in a land of 
unchanging perfection, where the wicked cease from troubling 
and the weary are at rest. Does the old Pine think that the 
world which opens up to a worm or to some tiny fish hidden 
among the stones or under the rocks of our beautiful mountain 
streams, is of the same extent or grandeur as that which opens 
up to us? Or does he think that the mental perceptions of 
these have the same strength and range as ours? Ellen thinks 
not. They are adapted to the places in which they live. 
Unquestionably there is as perfect a harmony between their 
existence and their environment as with us. But perception is 
limited both by conditions and by capacity. And it is incon- 
ceivable that there are no superior spheres to this of ours. 
So, too, it is inconceivable that these, when reached, should 
not include within their scope increased perceptions and 
enlarged capacities. And thus, as it seems to Ellen, is made 
known to us, logically and with certainty, the existence of such 
a state as that we call Heaven." 

"And Ellen is right," I said. "The existence of such a land 
as that we call Heaven is a necessary sequence of any existence." 

"Yes," she said, "the best is a necessary part of creation; 
else there would be only half a creation, more or less, which 
would be alike impossible and incredible. Thus man is never 
satisfied until the best result is obtained. Much less would 
infinite Intelligence be." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 8$ 



X. 



*f A ND now," I said, "the old Pine lias been wondering if 

** the essential nature of matter was active, as Ellen 
suggested, vvhether that might not account for gravitation." 

" Ellen thinks it accounts for all forces ; but matter largely, 
as we perceive it, is in a condition of equipoise, or partial 
rest, which ma}' be, and indeed would appear to be, the 
result of its combinations. What Ellen thinks is that all 
material forces come from matter in motion, and that this 
motion is inherent, so that unless prevented by combinations 
which produce an equipoise of forces, or when favored by 
combinations that do not produce an equipoise, matter is in 
motion, when it becomes force. Certain it is that in certain 
combinations, as in steam, there is a most pronounced force, 
which is simply expansion of the matter which makes steam." 

"But Ellen makes a distinction between force and motion, 
does she not? " 

"Ellen does not make such a distinction," she said, " but 
thinks that force is motion, and motion force." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, is force always motion? Can it not be 
resisted so that there is no motion ? " 

"Ellen thinks not," she said; "for if there was no motion 
there would be nothing to resist." 

"And yet," I said, "Ellen, is there not often force where 
there is no motion? Thus, a very widelv distributed force is 



84 ELLEN OR THE 

that of gravitation, where every particle is said to attract even 7 
other particle according to its mass and distance. This force, 
so far as we know, is always exerted, and yet many things 
are usually at rest. Then the force which causes gravitation 
is not motion, for there is no motion. Or, is the old Pine 
mistaken?" 

"Will the old Pine tell Ellen what force is, if it is not 
matter in motion?" 

"The old Pine cannot," I said. 

"And Ellen thinks," she said, "that there is no other cause, 
and therefore that the force of gravitation must be matter in 
motion, and all force matter in motion. And yet, as the old Pine 
says, most bodies are relatively at rest, their weight being 
unaltered; that is, the force that produceth weight is 
always active. Ellen might imagine that weight was produced 
by a stream of matter flowing in all space of a quality so fine 
that it can easily penetrate all of those gross bodies which we 
know to be susceptible to gravitation. That gravitation is sim- 
ply the pressure of such a stream, holding things down. 
Such cause would account for the fact that in a vacuum 
a feather would fall equally quick with a bullet, or that 
all things fall at same rate. For it is in the nature of streams 
or currents to carry things of different mass with the same 
speed, unless these are in some way impeded by other bodies. 
Thus a great tree and a chip are borne on with equal speed by 
the swollen stream." 

"But what should put such matter in motion?" I asked. 

"Ellen has sometimes thought," she said, "that gravitation . 
consists in a system of waves, caused by the rotatory move- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FINE 87 

ment of the spheres. For these float in space upon, or in the 
body of, some medium, whether such medium be called ether 
electricity or by any other name ; and in their rotatory move- 
ments a vast system of waves and currents must be created." 

"But," I said, "all the text books teach, do they not, that 
gravitation is the attraction of every particle of matter for every 
other particle?" 

"And does the old Pine think," she asked, "that every par- 
ticle does attract every other particle?" 

"Why, no," I said, "the old Pine has never really thought 
it; nor does he think that anybody else ever did, except it was 
a scientist who had surrendered to authority his ability to 
think. Yet it is a part of the Newtonian system which has 
been generally accepted, and was so announced by Sir Isaac 
Newton." 

"Yes," she said, "but not believed by him, nor first an- 
nounced by him. For Mr. Newton was not, as is quite gen- 
erally supposed, the discoverer of the principle of gravitation. 
Thales (b. C. 640-546), who is sometimes called the father 
of Greek philosophy, was acquainted with the action of the 
heavenly bodies upon each other; and, after him, the great 
Greek philosopher Pythagoras is supposed to have included 
this principle in his doctrine of the harmony of the spheres. 
Aristotle referred gravity or weight to an inclination of heavy 
bodies to seek the center of the earth. Copernicus ascribes it 
to an innate principle in all parts of matter to collect together. 
And in answer to Aristotle and his followers, who thought the 
center of the earth the center of the universe, he held that the 
principle of gravity did not belong only to the earth, but that 



88 • ELLEN OR THE 

the sun, moon, and stars tended likewise to each other, and that 
their spherical figure was preserved by this power. 

" Kepler speaks of gravity as a power mutual between bodies, 
and says that the earth and moon tend toward each other and 
would meet in a point as much nearer the earth as that was 
the larger, if their motions did not hinder. He thought, 
too, that the tides were caused by gravity. It was he, 
also, who discovered that law by which the planets revolve 
about the sun ; that the squares of their periodic times are 
always proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from 
the sun. 

" Des Cartes attributed gravity to some external impulse. 
Dr. Hooke also thought it resulted from a subtle medium which 
easily pervades and penetrates the most solid bodies. 

"What Mr. Newton did was to apply the principles of math- 
ematics to this force of gravity and demonstrate that it affected 
the courses of all the heavenly bodies in the solar system, and 
that the law of its action was in proportion to the product of the 
masses, divided by the square of the distance between the cen- 
tres of the bodies affected. That is, he found out that this was 
true as regards heavenly bodies, and foolishly or inadvertently 
let the statement cover all bodies, besides using such terminol- 
ogy as to suggest a principle of attraction at a distance between 
all bodies. And this is what, together with a lot of other stuff 
equally absurd, many scientists now teach. The old Pine will 
see that these scientists are a very ignorant sort of folk." 

"Yes," I said, "the old Pine has often thought they were 
the most ignorant of all, being ignorant of their own ignorance; 
but he didn't suppose it would do to say so." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 89 

"Yes," she said, "they are absurdly ignorant. The old 
Pine wants to keep very shy of the scientists." 

"Yes," I said, " the old Pine always has fought shy of them 
and will give them a still wider berth in the future." 

"That is right, Piney," she said. " Ellen doesn't want to 
see a sensible tree misled by idiots. And now to return to Mr. 
Newton, who was a very excellent mathematician, although 
not always a wise philosopher; that is, he made some blun- 
ders, as who does not? But these blunders, as Ellen thinks, 
are mainly due to the mistakes of others and his natural 
repugnance to disagreeing. Hence his errors on sound, and 
blundering announcement of the principle of attraction. 
Naturally he was wise, and Ellen thinks that if he could 
have lived long enough he would have brought everything out 
right. He was an awfully nice man, and Ellen thinks everything 
of him — almost as much as she does of the old Pine ; and she 
guesses she would full as much, or more, if he were still living; 
and have her talks with him instead of the old Pine, though he 
wouldn't be half so interesting; for he never had the education 
the old Pine has. And besides, he might dispute Ellen; but 
the old Pine is so awfully clever that he never disputes — real 
sensible old tree. And that's the reason Ellen comes to talk 
with him : he knows so much more than the scientists or phil- 
osophers. The old Pine is a great philosopher, isn't he?" 

"The old Pine has great confidence in Ellen," I said, "and 
thinks with Mr. Emerson that when God lets loose a thinker 
upon the world there is not a piece of science but its flank may 
be turned to-morrow. " 

" Ellen will turn the flanks of error if she can," she said. 



90 ELLEN OR THE 

''And now let us read what Mr. Newton himself wrote about 
gravitation. In a letter to Mr. Bentley, Mr. Newton says: 

1 It is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the 
mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and 
affect other matter without mutual contact, as it must do if gravitation 
in the sense of Epicurus be essential and inherent in it. * * * * 
That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so 
that one body can act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum 
without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their 
action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so 
great an absurdity, that I believe no man, who has in philosophical 
matters a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it.' 

Prof. Maxwell, in commenting upon this letter, says in the 
Encyclopedia Britannica : 

' And we also know that he sought for the mechanism of gravitation 
in the properties of an aetherial medium diffused over the universe. 

' It appears from his letters to Boyle, that this was his opinion early, 
and if he did not publish it sooner it proceeded from hence only, that 
he found he was not able, from experiment and observation, to give a 
satisfactory account of this medium and the manner of its operation in 
producing the chief phenomena of nature. 

' In his Optical Queries, indeed, he shows that if the pressure of 
this medium is less in the neighborhood of dense bodies than at great 
distances from them, dense bodies will be drawn towards each other, 
and that if the diminution of pressure is inversely as the distance from 
the dense body the law will be that of gravitation. The next step, as 
he points out, is to account for this inequality of pressure in the 
medium ; and as he was not able to do this, he left the explanation of 
the cause of gravity as a problem to succeeding ages. As regards 



.WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 9 1 

gravitation the progress made toward the solution of the problem since 
the time of Newton has been almost imperceptible.' 

"And so, too, Mr. Newton in the first chapter of his ' Prin 
cipia,' most particularly denies any intention to declare causes 
of the principles he refers to by the words chosen. Thus he 
says : 

• I likewise call reactions and impulses, in the same sense, accelera- 
tive, and motive ; and use the words attraction, impulse or propensity 
of any sort towards a center, promiscuously, and indifferently, one for 
another ; considering those forces not physically, but mathematically : 
wherefore, the reader is not to imagine, that by those words, I any- 
where take upon me to define the kind, or the manner of any action, 
the causes or the physical reason thereof, or that I attribute forces, in a 
true and physical sense, to certain centres (which are only mathe- 
matical points) ; when at any time I happen to speak of centres as 
attracting, or as endued with attractive powers.' 

" We cannot conceive of anything existing unless composed 
of something. Neither motion nor force, whether different, — or, 
as Ellen thinks, the same, — can be an exception to this prin- 
ciple. For there is no exception, nor is any exception possible. 
Then they are either material or spiritual : that is, composed 
of a material or a spiritual substance. It is impossible, as Ellen 
thinks, that motion is spiritual, for we can see that its every 
action is mechanical and not intelligent. It is a part of the 
material world ; that is, it is a part of matter, but matter, all 
matter is controlled by intelligence." 

"But surely," I said, "Ellen knows the three great laws of 
motion as announced by Sir Isaac Newton, and she recognizes 
in him the very highest authority?" 



92 ELLEN OR THE 

"She recognizes no authority," she said, "unless it tells her 
something ; for it isn't worth recognizing. Will the old Pine 
repeat for Ellen those laws?" 

" Most willingly," I answered. 

"First — Every body continues in its state of rest or of uni- 
form motion in a straight line except in so far as it may be com- 
pelled by impressed forces to change that state. 

" Second — Change of motion is proportioned to the im- 
pressed forces and takes place in the direction of the straight 
line in which the force acts. 

"Third — To every action there is always an equal and con- 
trary reaction : or the mutual actions of any two bodies are 
always equal and oppositely directed in the same straight line." 

"And what is a body?" she asked. 

"Why," I said, "everything that is composed of matter and 
is distinct from other matter." 

"Then Ellen is a body?" 

" Certainly," I said; " the finest body in the whole earth." 

"The old Pine being judge," she said. 

"The old Pine doesn't think it would make much difference 
who was judge. He will leave it to yonder yellow birch." 

" It is unquestionably true," the birch instantly replied. 

"Ellen seems to be among her friends, that is certain," she 
said. " But Ellen wanted to say that as a body she objects to 
Mr. Newton's first law. For when Ellen hitches up her horses 
and drives down to the village, or over to Granville, or perhaps 
to Lincoln and Bristol, she does not continue either in a state 
of rest or uniform motion in a straight line. Neither does she 
admit that she is compelled by impressed forces to change her 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 93 

state, unless Mr. Newton would choose to consider the wagon 
or the cutter that carries her, or the beautiful pair of Morgan 
horses that pull her, an impressed force. What does the old 
Pine think about this?" 

"The old Pine is a good deal confused.'' I said, " but thinks 
that Mr. Newton meant to make Ellen, who is so fine a girl, 
an exception to his rule." 

"But Ellen refuses to be an exception," she said. "She is 
a body, and, like every other body, when she moves she is 
either pushed or carried." 

"The old Pine thinks," I said, "that we will have to throw 
out the first law." 

"And with it certainly the second," she replied, "unless 
again by 'impressed forces' is meant a carrying power." 

"But the third, Ellen," I said — "that is Sir Isaac's own. The 
other two had been announced substantially as here given by 
Gallileo and Kepler. But this in regard to action and reaction 
was the great discovery of Sir Isaac. Surely Ellen appre- 
ciates a law of such impressive character?" 

"Ellen thinks it dismally obscure and unmeaning," she 
replied. " By action is and must be meant motion. Ellen 
can see no other meaning to the word reaction but resist- 
ance. That is, a body moving is resisted by another in 
its path, because both are unable to occupy the same 
space at the same time. As matter in some form exists 
everywhere in the physical universe, matter in motion is always 
opposed by other matter. That is, it is resisted. This resist- 
ance may be sufficient to stop the body moving. It would be 
diminished should the matter resisting be moving in the same 



9| ELLEN OR THE 

direction as that hitting it. Thus there is less resistance to one 
walking or moving with the wind than against it." 

"Then the cause of this resistance," I said, "is the impene- 
trability of matter?" 

"Yes," she replied; "often, if not generally, the reaction 
is from this cause. The body in motion is opposed by this 
principle and will be stopped by it unless able to go through, 
push along, or thrust aside the body opposing. In this strug- 
gle for possession, weight and velocity rather than size are 
dominant." 

"But," I said, " Ellen forgets the illustrations upon which 
Sir Isaac based this much quoted hypothetical law of action 
and reaction being equal." 

"And what were these?" she asked. 

"The old Pine will give exactly Mr. Newton's words," I said, 
"which are : 

' Whatever draws or presses another is as much drawn or pressed by 
that other. If you press a stone with your finger, the finger is also 
pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone tied to a rope, the 
horse (if I may so say) will be equally drawn back towards the stone ; 
for the distended rope by the same endeavor, to relax or unbend itself, 
will draw the horse as much toward the stone as it does the stone 
toward the horse, and will obstruct the progress of the one as much as 
it advances that of the other. If a body infringe upon another, and by 
its force change the motion of the other, that body also (because of 
the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change in 
its own motion toward the contrary part. The change made by these 
actions are equal, not in the velocities, but in the motions of bodies ; 
that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered by any other impediments. 
For, because the motions are equally changed, the changes of the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PIXE 95 

velocities made toward contrary parts are reciprocally proportional to 
the bodies. This law takes place also in attractions, as will be proved 
in the next scholium."' 

"The language again," she said, "to say the least, is very 
unhappily chosen. Ellen can see how it arose from a habit of 
that day, which was extended and quite common, of speaking 
of inanimate things as animate. The old Pine will notice 
how difficult it was for Mr, Newton to make these statements, 
his good sense rebelling against their fallacy, and causing him 
to apologize and explain in making them. The first statement 
is that whatever draws or presses another, is as much drawn or 
pressed by that other. In making the application the 
ridiculousness of the proposition causes Mr. Newton to in 
part retract. But the same wrong impression that the stone 
presses the finger, and the stone or rope draws the horse, is 
allowed to remain. The stone could no more press the finger 
or draw the horse, than it could deliver a Fourth of July oration. 
You press your own finger against the stone, which resists the 
pressure, because of the so-called principle of impenetrability 
of matter. There is nothing drawing but the horse, the stone 
resisting because of gravity and friction, which hold it to the 
ground, and the rope being only the material connection 
between the horse and the stone. Action and reaction, 
then, should be called action and resistance. And instead 
of being equal they are often unequal, depending upon 
the conditions. Thus if one presses towards the table a 
book lying flat upon the table, the resistance, or what 
Mr. Newton calls the reaction, is very pronounced, be- 
cause of the position of the book, supported by the table, 



96 ELLEN OR THE 

with a floor under the table and the earth under the floor. 
Let the same book be stood on edge and then pressed sidewise 
with the same force. It falls instantly, the resistance being 
entirely different. And thus it is always true that the resistance, 
called reaction by Mr. Newton, is always determined by 
conditions." 

But how would Ellen define the laws of motion?" I asked. 

"She would define them by defining the laws of matter," she 
answered, "of which, so Ellen thinks, motion is unquestionably 
a part. Motion is moving matter in which, as Ellen thinks, 
the carrying powers of nature consist. For, as Ellen has 
said, this material out of which God created the universe 
is sufficient for every purpose. Doesn't the old Pine sup- 
pose that in the great universe there is suitable machinery 
for transportation, as well as in this little world of ours? 
Ellen thinks there is, and knows there must be. Nor does 
she think that the machinery employed by man would 
answer in the greater universe. The old Pine must see that a 
pair of horses and a mule couldn't pull the world and the 
planets in their courses around the sun. And yet it is absolutely 
essential to the economy of the universe that these journeys by 
the spheres should be made. And so methods of transporta- 
tion are provided. But of course these are made from the mate- 
rial that's in the universe. How else could they be made? 
Certainly they are not made from nothing." 

"Then Ellen thinks that in the great universe things are 
moved precisely as they are here with us — that is, that they 
are either pushed, pulled, or carried?" 

"Ellen thinks just that," she replied. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 99 

"And inertia /" 

" Is a poor name for the supposed inability of any inanimate 
body to alter its condition — an inability that does not exist; 
for, by the effect of matter upon matter, everything is con- 
tinually changing. Hence the constant flux — the constant 
cessation of motion at one point, and its appearance at another. 
For there was never known to be in existence a particle of 
matter that wasn't alive with motion, potential or actual. There 
is nothing whatever to show that any particle ever rests. If 
not flying one way it is creeping another, with the chance, if 
not the certainty, that it is going several different ways at the 
same time. Thus a body on a boat moves with the boat, also 
with the daily rotation and yearly revolution of the earth, and 
with the movement of our system about some distant centre, if 
that, as is supposed, takes place. And therefore as the natural 
condition of matter is not rest, it must be motipn. 

"But this is too great a subject to be considered further to- 
day. Should there be opportunity, Ellen would like to consider 
it further with the old Pine, and see if it would not be possible 
to so state the laws of motion, that they w ill not only sustain 
the mathematics, but also announce intelligently and correctly 
the causes which operate. For motion is the living principle in 
tHe material universe, nor can Ellen imagine how anything 
could exist without it." 

"The old Pine will be delighted to assist all he can," I said; 
"but Ellen seems to be pretty revolutionary in her physics." 

"And the old Pine is awfully unorthodox in his religion," 
she answered; "asked Ellen the foolishest questions! Ellen 
got dreadfully ashamed of him." 

L.ofC. 



100 ELLEN OR THE 



XI. 
^1X7" ELL," I said, "the old Pine will be very careful in 



w 



"Ellen told the old Pine once it was a creation." 

"And how is it created?" I asked. 

"The old Pine has asked a most difficult question," she 
replied. " And then there are so many kinds of life. Certainly 
the old Pine does not think that Ellen will explain every one of 
them ; for there is animal life and plant life, and, as Ellen 
thinks, rock life and pebble life. Indeed, she is suspicious that 
everything has life, from the smallest particle to the largest 
sphere ; that they come into form and pass away — that is, 
disintegrate, and others take their places. What is the life 
that the old Pine would have Ellen talk about?" 

" The old Pine is most interested," I said, "in the life of plants 
and the life of man." 

" And what does the old Pine want Ellen to tell about the life 
of plants? Surely he should know far more than Ellen in what 
consists their being. Wouldn't the old Pine please tell Ellen if 
they all have intelligence, as he has?" 

"The old Pine doesn't know much about such matters," 
I said, "and so wants Ellen to tell him." 

"And Ellen can't tell," she said, "any more than she can tell 
about the life of the rocks or of the stars. But Ellen thinks 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE IOI 

they all have life — the sweet pea that makes such pretty love to 
her, and the great sun that is so bold in shining into her face. 

"Life — the life of animals or plants, is a growth and 
development, that by unchangeable law comes from other 
life of precisely similar form and character. There would 
seem to be no good reason to doubt that this has always 
been so, and that every species of life is thus descended 
from its original, which was created by God, this prin- 
ciple or power of reproduction being included. Thus the 
seed comes always, but certain favorable conditions are neces- 
sary to its development. Should these be present, it will 
develop ; otherwise, not. And so, too, through all the pathway 
of its growth the conditions must be more or less favorable, else 
it perisheth." 

"And can life originate in no other way?" 

"In no other way," she said, "unless God, who created it, 
should again use His power. This is our experience, old Pine, 
and there is absolutely no exception." 

" Then the different forms of life do not pass into each other?" 

" They do not, so far as we have any knowledge." 

"But," I said, " it might happen without our knowledge, 
might it not? Many scientists have spent a great deal of time 
in attempting to prove the principle of evolution." 

" Yes," she replied, " and without success. It has always been 
known that a principle of heredity exists, and that use can be 
made of it through selection to develop different breeds of 
animals or plants. This is an illustration of the great law, 
1 Each after its kind.' But here is the beginning and end of 
evolution. 



102 ELLEN OR THE 

"If the scientists were fortified with wits, a thing they 
nearly all seem to be without, they would consider how intel- 
ligence operates, where they are able to perceive its operations. 
Thus, man has intelligence, and through it makes many 
things which vary from one another much as do things in 
nature. Thus again Mr. Locke writes: 

' I must be excused here if I think artificial things are of distinct spe- 
cies, as well as natural ; since I find they are as plainly and orderly 
ranked into sorts, by different abstract ideas, with general names 
annexed to them, as distinct from one another, as those of natural sub- 
stances. For why should we not think a watch and pistol as distinct 
species one from another, as a horse and a dog, they being expressed 
in our minds by distinct ideas, and to otheis by distinct appellations?' 

"But in no case are the things made by man evolved from 
each other. A watch is not evolved from a cotton factory, or 
a cotton factory from a watch, but each is a distinct creation of 
the intellect. And always each thing of the innumerable num- 
ber made by man is thus a separate creation of the intellect. 
Animals, too, have intelligence, building and arranging the 
homes they live in, and doing other things to provide for their 
living, in which their intelligence operates in a similar manner 
to that of man. And, Ellen thinks, thus the highest Intelli- 
gence creates. The Bible says : 

'And God said : Let us make man in our own image, after our own 
likeness ; and let him have dominion over the fish of the sea, and 
over the fowl of the air ; and over the cattle, and over all the earth 
and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. 

' So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created 
He him ; male and female created He them.' " 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 103 

"But, Ellen, man cannot create life." 

" No," she said, "but Ellen cannot see why the magnitude of 
the thing created need affect or change the manner in which 
intelligence creates. Certain it is that man's intelligence, 
derived from infinite Intelligence, docs not work through 
a. system of evolution, but by separate creation. Then the 
laws of mind being universal infinite Intelligence does the 
same." 

"But could not God create by a system of evolution?" I 
asked. 

"Undoubtedly He could," she answered, "and would have 
done so had that been the best system. Does the old Pine think 
that it would be the best system?" 

"The old Pine doesn't know." 

"Neither do the scientists," she said, — "those who believe in 
evolution, if such there are, or if they know what they mean by 
the word. But He who made the heavens and the earth 
knew well and chose the best method. And this method, 
as we know it, is: First, that all things have their origin 
in the intellect; second, that each thing has thus a sepa- 
rate origin. The principle would appear to be one thing 
at a time, and the old Pine knows very well that there is 
no better principle to insure successful result. And the old 
Pine must remember, too, that methods make qualities. Thus, 
efficiency is a result of efficient methods, thrift, of economical 
methods or habits. Nor is it possible for thoroughness to be 
evolved from shiftless methods, or economy from lazy ones. 
And therefore, as Ellen thinks, those methods will be 
employed by nature, and only those, whose effect will be to 



104 ELLEN OR THE 

establish desirable qualities. It seems to Ellen that every such 
thing as this has the same practical importance in the greater 
creation as it has with us. For that there, as here, everywhere, 
results, moral or physical, come from causes ; and that every- 
where the causes producing like results are substantially the 
same." 

"Then Ellen thinks that everything is first created in the 
intellect." 

"There is no possible question in regard to this," she 
answered. "Everything is first created in the intellect, as an 
idea." 

"And is the creation of this idea instantaneous?" I asked. 

" In the nature of intellect there is no reason," she replied, 
"why it might not be ; and with God we may well believe that it 
is. Thus we read : ' And God said, Let there be light ; and there 
was light.' And Ellen thinks that everything was thus instan- 
taneously created by that infinite God, who ruleth over the 
troubled seas, and holdeth the universe in the hollow of His 
hand." 

"But, Ellen, the idea isn't the whole of the creation, is it?" 

" Not perhaps the physical part of it," she replied, " but by far 
the most remarkable and most difficult part. Instantaneously, 
perhaps, followed the physical part. Perhaps the processes 
were more slow ; Ellen does not know." 

"And what is intellect, Ellen?" 

"The unknown," she said. "But this we know, that in its 
supreme form it must be God." 

"And Ellen thinks the idea is the primal cause of all things? " 

" Unquestionably it is," she answered. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 105 

" But may we not speak of other things as causes?" I asked. 

" Certainly we may," she said. " Thus of an image we may 
say that the metal of which it is made is a cause. So the arti- 
ficer is a cause ; or the instruments with which he works. But 
before and above these is the great first cause, the idea or de- 
sign of the image, without which no image ever was made." 

" And Ellen thinks this is true of all things, even the most 
trivial?" 

" It is unquestionably," she replied. " Does the old Pine think 
it would be more easy for a pin to come into existence, or a 
paper of pins, than a locomotive or a series of locomotives?" 

" But," I said, " Ellen, the scientists are positive that things 
are made by the forces of nature, and not at all by this most 
wonderful thing which you call intelligence. And Ellen knows, 
for she has said, that these forces are always at work. Certainly 
such wonderful forces are for some purpose. Won't Ellen tell 
the old Pine what they are for?" 

" Many are the things which man designs," she said, "and 
they are all made from that which we call matter. Does 
the old Pine think that any one of them ever came into exist- 
ence through the forces which are inherent in matter? Ellen 
means the forces of gravitation, chemical affinity, — or any 
other forces, if such there be, which weld or hold different 
things together, and thus make a new thing. Or yet again, 
does the old Pine suppose that these things, or any of them, — 
though if any, all might, — which man makes, will construct them- 
selves, because of the nails or screws or glue, or any other instru- 
ment used to hold them together? The old Pine knows that 
these combining forces of nature, or the artificial ones used by 



106 ELLEN OR THE 

man, alone, can accomplish nothing; that instead of producing 
all things, they produce nothing. Wouldn't Ellen have to wait 
quite a little time for a comb to fasten her hair, if she depended 
alone for its production on the blind forces of nature, or the 
machinery of man? She might wait a million years, if she could 
last that long, but never get the comb, only as intelligence should 
guide its making. And does the old Pine suppose it is 
any different in the greater creation? The blind forces of 
nature which hold things together are, as Ellen thinks, but 
the nails and screws and glue of the greater creation. As well 
say that the nails and the screws, or the hammers and other 
tools which drive them, or the teams or other agencies 
which bring the materials together, make a piano, as to say 
that these forces of nature make the universe, or make 
anything of which they form a part. Intelligence, and intelli- 
gence alone, creates all things. Man with his intelligence makes 
the piano ; and God Himself, as we have a right to believe, 
created the universe and all that it contains. First the design, 
and then its production from the necessary material. In the 
greater creation God has created this material, the instruments 
or forces for holding it together being included. And these 
last, just as with us, are made from the material. Thus man 
makes the brick for a house, and then the mortar to keep them 
in their place ; or boards, and screws and nails to hold them 
together. 

" For we have already considered how impossible it is that 
man alone should have inventive or creative power ; that 
the things that we see, the man}' wonderful things, or less 
wonderful, in the creat universe, must be formed" as with us 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE \OJ 

by design, with the necessary material for producing the phys- 
ical result. The old Pine cannot help but see this, although 
perhaps he may think that he would not have created the uni- 
verse in this way." 

"But, Ellen," I said, "it would be impossible for the old Pine 
to create it." 

"Yes," she answered, "and so it would be for the scientists. 
Ellen hasn't any very great confidence that all of them together 
could make one sweet pea, not to speak of the universe. But 
Ellen supposes that if it were possible for them to control, they 
would have cotton factories and pianos and watches and every- 
thing else which man makes — evolved as wanted all complete 
out of his brain. They would unquestionably suppose some 
such system of evolution infinitely better than God's method 
of ideas, followed by necessary labor. But Ellen thinks that 
God's plan is the best for us; that the man is greatest who 
earns his bread, as well as the bread sweetest to him who works 
for it." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, wouldn't it be very nice if in someway 
we could have by the wish everything that is wanted, at least 
everything which is useful or desirable?" 

" If it would be," she said, " there must be a state where such 
conditions exist. Perhaps it would be if we were prepared for 
it. It is very evident that we are not fitted for it now, and that 
•the law, 'In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread,' is far 
the best adapted to man's present condition. Perhaps, Ellen 
does not know, but she can well believe, — for in the great 
universe, the border only of whose existence Ellen knows she 
has yet seen, there is room for every condition, — the soul will 



I08 ELLEN OR THE 

finally rise above all material things, to the realm of pure spirit, 
and that then, the body having been dropped, material forms 
will be no longer necessary, and the idea will be complete 
without its material embodiment. Then, indeed, might we 
have all things as wanted, evolved instantaneously by the 
intellect." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I I I 



XII. 



f f I ""HEN Ellen thinks," I said, " that all these forces in nature 
* which weld things together are similar in their use 
to, and answer the purpose of nails, screws, and other instru- 
ments with which man fastens things together?" 

" Ellen thinks just that," she replied. " For seeing the myriads 
of things in the universe all showing design, and perceiving 
them to be made of materials fastened together, she has a right 
to believe, and does believe, that the forces which fasten them 
answer the purpose of those instruments which fasten together 
the things made by man. The old Pine doesn't suppose that 
nails and tacks, or screws and glue and such other things as 
man has to build with, would answer for fastening trees and men 
and animals together; or to fasten the great globes distributed 
in space, or the winds, or the waves, or the sunshine, whose 
winged flight is hid in darkness, until it breaks upon the atmos- 
phere and scatters its light and heat, — and the many other 
things which go to make up the universe?" 

"No," I said, " they wouldn't answer at all for such purpose." 
"No," she said; "for as infinitely superior as are the 
things which are made, so also infinitely superior must be 
the materials of which they are made. The nails and 
the screws, or the mortar and the glue, will do for the things 
which man makes ; but in the greater creation among the 



112 ELLEX OR THE 

more wonderful things which God has created, those things 
that have life with changing conditions, and especially 
that particular kind of life which has intelligence, and 
more especially that kind which has the highest intelligence, 
are infinitely beyond the ability of man to invent or to put 
together, and require materials of a very greatly superior 
quality for their creation. The old Pine can see of what 
delicacy must be the material which joins in indissoluble 
beauty the fibres of a leaf, or fastens together the different 
parts of a thought. These materials, as the old Pine sees, God 
has provided ; and in the wonderful laboratories of nature they 
are furnished in forms the most convenient for use, and in 
unlimited quantities. And so, too, Ellen thinks that heat acts 
as a lever to separate things, or pry them apart. What other 
agents, if any, are thus used, she knows not. 

"This is the creation, old Pine, and thus it has been created, 
by an infinite, eternal and unchangeable God. Even as man 
with his most limited powers makes things, so does God with 
His most abundant power. And even as man loves and hates, 
so doth this our Heavenly Father love and hate, only the hatred 
is a righteous hatred of those things which mar and hinder the 
beauties and usefulness of His great universe. And thus God 
ruleth above us even as earthly parents rule over their children. 
'Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth 
them that fear Him.' " 

"But," I said, "Ellen, those scientists who believe in evo- 
lution claim that there is a tendency of animals and 
plants to revert to long-lost characters. And, also, that 
rudimentary and other useless organs are found in ani- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I I 3 

mals, as rudimentary teeth in the upper jaws of calves, 
and rudimentary hind legs in boa constrictors, and cer- 
tain rudimentary organs in mankind, which must have existed 
millions of years ago, more or less. And they claim that these 
are transmitted by heredity, and can only be explained by 
evolution. So that by this theory some things have been 
evolved up and some have been evolved down. That is, 
some have improved and some deteriorated." 

"And does the old Pine see any truth in such claims?" she 
asked. 

"No," I answered, "it does not seem to the old Pine that 
there is any." 

"And there is none," she said. "Mr. Darwin, in 'Origin of 
Species,' contends that reversion is not as potent as generally 
thought; that it is easy to breed cart or race-horses, long and 
short-horned cattle, and esculent vegetables without their 
reverting to the characters of the original stock. He also 
says that reversionary and analogous characters may be easily 
confounded. In the 'Descent of Man,' arguing for evolu- 
tion, he gives more prominence to reversion, claiming that 
several abnormal variations of muscles in man resemble the 
typical ones in apes, and that dark-colored stripes suddenly 
reappear on the legs and shoulders of horses, asses, and mules, 
— derived, he believes, from a striped ancestor, hundreds and 
perhaps thousands of generations ago. 

"The first statement is true, as many well attested cases of 
breeding both animals and plants prove. Shape, color, size, and 
quality can be established and continued with great certainty, 
though if attention is withdrawn there will be a tendency to 



114 ELLEN OR THE 

revert to previous conditions. But all this happens within 
narrow and well defined limits, and is indeed a part of the one 
great law of nature, each thing after its kind. For all improved 
breeds are a special illustration of this principle, only taking 
place through it." 

"But how does Ellen explain reversion and rudimentary 
organs? " 

"Very easily," she replied : "that those characters claimed by 
the scientists to be rudimentary organs belong to and are a 
part of the organized life in which they exist." 

"But why should useless organs be created?" 

"And what makes the old Pine think that useless organs are 
created? " 

"The scientists say that some of those found, or many of 
them, are useless," I answered. 

"And how do the scientists know?" she asked. "Did they 
make them, or the life in which they are found?" 

"Oh, no," I answered, "they couldn't make either the life 
or the characters." 

"Then how are they qualified to judge? Who may be sup- 
posed to know best how a thing should be made — he who 
designs and makes it, or he who can do neither? The old Pine 
may be perfectly certain that there is not an organ or a charac- 
ter occurring in anything in the universe, which is not intended, 
or has not its use. If certain characters sometimes appear and 
sometimes not, or if a certain feature is sometimes one way 
and sometimes another, it is because the creation was so made 
that this might be the case. The same result frequently takes 
place in those things made by man." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I 1 5 

"But," I said, " Ellen, it is not so much what characters 
appear, or why, as the process by which they are made. lit 
what manner did God create them? Many scientists admit 
that everything was created by God, only that the process was 
one of evolution and not of separate creation." 

"Ellen hardly thinks that many scientists really admit this," 
she said. "At least there are many who do not, whose con- 
tention is to substitute the forces of nature for God. But the 
old Pine remembers who alone it is that says there is no God." 

" It is the fool," I said. 

"Yes," she said, "it is the fool. The instructions of 
the Bible are the condensed wisdom of the ages. The 
opening verse of this wonderful scripture, whose only object is 
to aid us, 'In the beginning God created the heaven and the 
earth,' covers all possible knowledge of this beginning to us, 
instilling into our minds the greatest of all instruction, that 
before and above everything else is God." 

"But," 1 said, "Ellen, Mr. Darwin asserts very strongly that 
the principle of reversion or the appearance of some lost char- 
acter in breeding, as also so-called rudimentary organs, are im- 
portant evidences of evolution. Thus he says: 

' But the principle of reversion by which a long-lost structure is called 
back into existence, might serve as the guide for its full development, 
even after the lapse of an enormous interval of time. These several 
reversionary structures, as well as the strictly rudimentary ones, reveal 
the descent of man from some lower form in an unmistakable manner. 
All the phenomena of organic development and further the whole his- 
tory of rudimentary organs are exceedingly important proofs of the 
theory of descent. For by it alone can they be explained, whereas its 
opponents cannot offer a shadow of explanation of them.' " 



Il6 ELLEN OR THE 

"And the statements demonstrate," she said, "Mr. Darwin's 
incompetency or dishonesty ; for they are not true. How far 
reversion may extend, no one knows. That it might serve 
as a guide after a long lapse of time, no one knows. That 
it reveals in an unmistakable manner the descent of man 
from some lower form is utterly false, if it is supposed 
to reveal this to any sensible person ; for it does nothing 
of the kind. Mr. Darwin assumes that rudimentary organs 
are useless, an assumption that could only be made by 
a man exceedingly ignorant or essentially dishonest. That a 
thing can exist without certain parts, does not show that those 
parts are not useful. A person may exist without a hand, an 
arm, or an eye. So, too, some organs are more useful than 
others. Professor Huxley, one of the brightest of modern 
scientists, in the article on evolution in the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, says : 

' It is almost impossible to prove that any structure, however rudi- 
mentary, is useless — that is to say, that it plays no part whatever, and 
if if is in the slightest degree useful, there is no reason why, on the 
hypothesis of direct creation, it should not have been created. 1 

"And he adds: 

'Nevertheless, double-edged as is the argument from rudimentary 
organs, there is probably none which has produced a greater effect in 
promoting the general acceptance of the theory of evolution.' 

"This illustrates how easily many people are humbugged, a 
thing that is frequently illustrated in human affairs. For this 
purpose, assertion with disregard of truth is alone necessary. 
If this is done ingeniously, the world is as ready to be deceived 
by it as by ornament. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 11 J 

"Reversion is a resemblance to a more distant ancestor than 
the parent. It would appear to certainly take place at times, 
but Ellen is very doubtful how much there may be of it in the 
usual acceptance of the term. In speaking of pigeons, Mr. 
Darwin writes : 

' No instance is known of crossed descendants of different breeds 
reverting to an ancestor of foreign blood removed by a greater number 
than twelve or twenty generations.' 

"Such evidence as this last is of the strongest kind that 
reversion does not extend for more than twenty generations. 
And yet Mr. Darwin later attempts to explain by reversion 
so-called rudimentary organs. Thus he says : 

'No doubt it is a very surprising fact that characters should reappear 
after having been lost for many — probably hundreds of generations. 
* * * After twelve generations the proportion of blood, to use a 
common expression, from an ancestor, is only i in 2,048.' 

"This last estimate is obtained by Mr. Darwin under the 
supposition that the first descendant would partake of half of 
the blood of the father and half of the mother, or 1 to 2. In 
the next generation, having four grandparents, the propor- 
tion would be 1 to 4 ; the third generation, with eight great- 
grandparents, 1 to 8 ; and thus, by the same proportions, the 
twelfth generation would show 1 to 2,048, as stated by Mr. Dar- 
win; the 25th would be 1 to 16,777,216; the 50th, 1 to 526,- 
952,548,730,112 and the 100th 1 to 1,116,700,203,157,979,- 
881,456,633,757,926. But long before this, interbreeding would 
have to take place, as there would not otherwise be enough life 
to fill the conditions; still, as the problem rolled back millions 



I 1 8 ELLEN OR THE 

of years the old Pine will see what an infinite number of indi- 
viduals there would be for this principle of reversion to pass 
through. 

"And he will notice, too, that whilst the so-called reversion 
is supposed to come through this immense number of assumed 
ancestors, thousands of other possible organs which would have 
belonged to individuals in this chain vastly nearer to its termin- 
ation do not appear at all, and never appear in rudimentary 
form or otherwise. The explanation is preposterous." 

"It is unquestionably so," I said. "But now since Ellen has 
entered into the discussion so far, wouldn't she better go 
farther? In the article by Mr. Huxley that Ellen has quoted 
from, the following epitome of the subject appears: 

' The notion that all kinds of animals and plants may have come into 
existence by the growth and modification of primordial germs is as old 
as speculative thought ; but the modern scientific form of the doctrine 
can be traced historically to the influence of several converging lines of 
philosophical speculation and of physical observation, none of which go 
further back than the 17th century. These are : 

1. The enunciation by Descartes of the conception that the physical 
universe, whether living or not living, is a mechanism, and that, as 
such, it is explicable on physical principles. 

2. The observation of the gradations of structure, from extreme sim- 
plicity to very great complexity, presented by living things, and of the 
relation of these graduated forms to one another. 

3. The observation of the existence of an analogy between the series 
of gradations presented by the species which compose any great group 
of animals or plants, and the series of embryonic conditions of the 
highest members of that group. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I 19 

4. The observation that large groups of species of largely different 
habits present the same fundamental plan of structure ; and that parts 
of the same animal or plant, the functions of which are very different, 
likewise exhibit modifications of a common plan. 

5. The observation of the existence of structures, in a rudimentary 
and apparently useless condition, in one species of a group, which are 
fully developed and have definite functions in other species of the 
same group. 

6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in modifying 
living organisms. 

7. The observations of the facts of geographical distribution. 

8. The observation of the facts of the geological succession of the 
forms of life.' 

" What has Ellen to say to all this?" 

"To this Ellen has to say that she thinks, first, that the 
physical universe, whether living or not, is a mechanism, 
and that, as such, it is explicable on physical principles. So 
she thinks the operations of a clock are explicable on 
mechanical principles, but she knows just the same that 
the clock did not come into existence of itself, but was 
wholly the production of intelligence. And so she knows 
that the many things which we see existing in the universe 
could not have come into existence of themselves, but are the 
production of some higher intelligence. 

"Second, the observation of the gradations of structure, etc., 
is to her only the exhibition of the power of a higher intelli- 
gence. She might well think this if she knew nothing of the 
methods by which intelligence acts ; but she sees that it is 
exactly in this way that all intelligence operates, where we can 
follow its methods, and therefore she can the more readily 



120 ELLEN OR THE 

believe that a higher intelligence acts in a similar manner. 
She is taught this by her common sense, nor can she possibly 
believe anything else unless she throws away that common 
sense. For that tells her that the lower forms of intelligence 
are unquestionably modelled after the higher. The same 
explanation is true of paragraphs 3 and 4; 5 has already 
been fully answered. As to 6 : The effect of outside influ- 
ences in changing organisms is always obvious, and is one of 
the great laws operating in the process of generation which 
Ellen will discuss presently. The facts of 7 and 8 are variously 
interpreted for or against the theory of evolution, though gen- 
erally geological facts are considered adverse, because they do 
-not show the necessary intermediate forms between species, 
which must have existed if evolution were true. Mr. Darwin, 
with his usual ingenuity, attempts to explain the omission by 
asserting the incompleteness of the geological record. 

"By untrue statements, as Ellen has shown, Mr. Darwin 
endeavors to bolster up his theories. The facts, as they appear, 
are> that things are created in families, and for every family 
there is the normal type. Whether the full perfection of 
this type ever appears on earth, or in the material universe, 
Ellen does not know ; but it is evident that it does not 
often so appear, but instead variations from it, more or 
less perfect, usually less rather than more. So we see that 
things are created in this way with a certain amount of 
possible variation in each type. Thus they vary in size, color, 
shape, and action, producing that harmonious variety in 
which so largely consist the useful and beautiful. Thus, 
too, man causes to vary the different things made by him. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I2T 

It would be a funny world if every hat and every umbrella 
and every house and every other thing were precisely 
alike. Production is from seed, but the usual seed of an 
animal or plant is composed of many different seeds or seed- 
lets, each of which produces a different organ. Among 
these seedlets is a certain correlation of growth. And thus the 
new body is formed as a stream is composed of streamlets. 
Nor is it possible for it to be formed in any other way, except 
that in plant and in some animal life the seed may be a cut- 
ting. It follows, too, if any seedlet is absent or lies dormant 
in the seed, there will be a corresponding deficiency in the 
thing produced. Every character which appears is and must 
be contained in the seed. Otherwise we should have some- 
thing from nothing." 



122 ELLEN OR THE 



XIII. 

T~} UT," I said, " Ellen, this principle of generation which 

■L-' you suggest is metamorphosis ; but the old Pine has 
understood that the latest discoveries of science show that 
generation takes place by cpigcncsisr 

"Ellen thinks the old Pine is dreadfully impolite," she said, 
"when she tells him how growth takes place, not to believe 
her. Ellen doesn't care what name the old Pine gives to this 
elementary principle of growth ; neither does she care what the 
stupid scientists say about it — certainly not so far as they are 
stupid. 

" In the growth of things we cannot see all that happens, but 
we see enough to know its nature. And our knowledge is that 
all life is from life, and that it partakes of the character of the 
life from which it comes. There was never a known exception 
to this. Men do not gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles. 
Always the life produced is similar to that which produced it. 
And, indeed, this principle of similarity to its source is true of 
all things, those not considered to have life as well as those 
that have. Whatever is developed must partake of the nature 
of the source of its development. Thus a stream must consist 
of what constitutes its sources of supply." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, there might be many sources of 
supply, might there not, and each different?" 

"Of a stream there might," she said. "Then would the 
stream be conglomerate, consisting of all the different things 
supplied by its sources. And so with life. Thus every organ 




Smuggler's Notch, Mansfield Mountain. — Jay Peak in Distance. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 25 

and every part of each organ has its source or particular germ. 
For all things are continuous, cause preceding effect." 

"But," I said, "if different causes combine, a new effect will 
be produced." 

"Yes," she said, "if they do combine." 

"And who shall decide whether they shall combine or not?" 

"He who made them," she answered, "for all things are a 
creation. Material things must obey the laws of material things, 
but mind stands above causes. It wills, and the thing is done." 

" But," I said, " Ellen, causes after production can change 
results, can they not? Thus lightning may shatter an oak that 
it die. And a thousand causes may interfere with the action of 
any life, making it very different from what it otherwise would 
have been. Thus the old Pine understands that a breed of tail- 
less mice has been propagated from those having tails, by con- 
tinued breeding to those whose tails have been cut off. In such 
a case a tail-less variety is evolved from a race having tails, 
— the result being brought about by outside influences and not 
from the sources of production. May it not be possible 
that in some similar manner species are evolved from each 
other? " 

" In all things which have growth there is opportunity for 
variety," she said; "but this opportunity is within limits, for 
all growth is within limits. Because a man grows six feet 
it doesn't follow that he will grow sixty. And thus every- 
thing which is made is limited. For design is limit, and 
creation is by design. And so in combination, certain things 
will combine and certain others will not. Different species, 
as a rule, will not combine, neither will a rock with a tree, 



126 ELLEN OR THE 

nor oil with water. Perhaps the old Pine would have made the 
universe in this respect and in many others very different." 

"The old Pine couldn't make it at all," I said. 

44 Well," she said," it is made this way. Nor can either 
Ellen or the old Pine change it. But they can see the general 
system under which it is made : that it is done by mind, 
and takes place according to the design of its Creator. A 
thing, then, is as it is made. But material things are made in 
accordance with the laws which govern matter. And therefore 
in combination, only that can enter into the product which 
belongs to its sources. Thus, if cloth were made from wool 
and silk, it would in some way, however mixed, be composed 
of wool and silk. It could not possibly, after the mixture, be 
wool and cotton, or cotton and silk. And thus would it be 
with a plant or animal. It has the organs of the parents ; nor 
is it possible for it to have any other. For in life, by the law 
of its creation, there can be no combination unless there is simi- 
larity. The combination might bring and does bring different 
results, but all within limits. Color and size especially vary. 
But species do not change. As well could silk and wool mixed 
make a silk and cotton or a cotton and wool goods. And so in 
all combinations, only that can enter into the combined product 
which belongs to one or other of the things combined, whether 
this combination is mechanical or chemical. 

'Tn an article before referred to, Mr. Huxley says: 

' In the immense majority of both plants and animals, it is certain 
that the germ is not merely a body in which life is dormant or poten- 
tial, but that it is itself simply a detached portion of the substance of 
a pre-existing living body.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE \2J 

" What, then, may be the possible effects of outside influ- 
ences in causing differences ; and how much may such differ- 
ences eventually alter the character of species? The character 
of a stream might be entirely altered by the great amount of 
things added to it. But this is not so with life ; for it will at 
the most assimilate but little. Its growth may be retarded, and 
its organism reduced to a minimum, because of a want of 
proper or sufficient material for nourishment. This may stunt 
but cannot change the nature of anything. So, too, especially 
favorable conditions might very much increase growth. Other 
conditions, especially those of use or disuse, might increase or 
diminish the power of some particular organ, and possibly at 
times a result thus obtained might be handed down by hered- 
ity. But this law of variation, like that of growth, is within 
limits. Nothing can be developed except what exists, nor 
anything be lost that is essential to existence." 

"And would it be possible," I asked, "that species should 
cease to exist? " 

" Certainly," she said ; " different species, and probably many, 
have ceased to exist, some practically so in our own day. The 
buffalo, or bison, is an illustration. And the old Pine will see 
that such species do not change into another, but drop out 
entirely. Thus the mastodon has dropped out and the four- 
toed horse so-called, which evolutionists speak of as the pro- 
genitor of the present horse, but which has nothing more to do 
with the present horse than it has with the building of Solo- 
mon's temple. This much, then, is certain: that from any 
species can come only such organisms as exist in that species. 
Nor can such organisms be changed beyond certain limits by 



128 ELLEN OR THE 

outside influences. Of course so far as they are changed, they 
may be either improved or injured." 

14 But how," I asked, "may varieties be distinguished from 
species?" 

"The ultimate test," she replied, "is that of reproduction. 
All varieties interbreed freely, as they should, being derived 
from the same source. This is true also of their offspring. It 
is not generally true of different species, and never of their 
offspring. Thus effectually has nature established the barriers 
to preserve order in production throughout the universe — a 
matter of very great importance, as the old Pine will see. 
Thus often man provides by a double protection against dan- 
gers, or undesirable results. And now the old Pine ought to 
tell Ellen what he means by those Greek words." 

"The old Pine doesn't know very well," I said, " only that 
the scientists disagree, whether generation is by metamorphosis 
or epigenesis. Thus the great naturalists, Bonnet, Haller, 
Cuvier, and Buffon, claimed that it took place by metamor- 
phosis, and for a long time this view was generally accepted. 
Then other scientists claimed it was beyond question epigenesis 
which occurred." 

"Ellen will tell the old Pine," she said. "Metamorphosis, 
as applied to generation, is the theory that generation is simply 
development, or growth — the sudden changing of a formative 
substance into the miniature of the whole, which subsequently 
grows. Bonnet affirms that an organized individual is a com- 
posite body consisting of the original, or elementary, parts and 
the matters which have been associated with them by the aid 
of nutrition. So that, as Professor Huxley remarks : 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 29 

1 If these matters could be extracted from the individual, it would, so 
to speak, become concentrated in a point, and would thus be restored 
to its primitive condition of a germ: just as by extracting from a bone 
its calcareous substance, which is the source of its hardness, it is reduced 
to its primitive state of gristle or membrane.' 

"Again Professor Huxley says: 

'"Evolution" and "development" are, for Bonnet, synonymous 
terms; and since by "evolution" he means simply the expansion of 
that which was invisible into visibility, he was naturally led to the 
conclusion, at which Leibnitz had arrived by a different line of reason- 
ing, that no such thing as generation, in the proper sense of the word, 
exists in nature. The growth of an organic being is simply a process 
of enlargement, as a particle of dry gelatine may be swelled up by the 
intussusception of water ; its death is a shrinkage, such as the swelled 
jelly might undergo on dessication. Nothing really new is produced 
in the living world, but the germs which develop have existed since 
the beginning of things ; and nothing really dies, but, when what 
we call death takes place, the living thing shrinks back into its germ 
state. 

'The two parts of Bonnet's hypothesis, namely, the doctrine that all 
living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that these contain, 
one inclosed within the other, the germs of all future living things, 
which is the hypothesis of "emboitement;" and the doctrine that every 
germ contains in miniature all the organs of the adult, which is the 
hypothesis of evolution or development, in the primary senses of these 
words, must be carefully distinguished. In fact, while holding firmly 
by the former, Bonnet more or less modified the latter in his later 
writings, and, at length, he admits that a "germ" need not be an actual 
miniature of the organism j but that it may be merely an "original pre- 
formation" capable of producing the latter.' 



I30 ELLEN OR THE 

"Epigenesis, as defined by Professor Huxley, is a successive 
differentiation of a relatively homogeneous rudiment into the 
parts and structure which are characteristic of the adult. 
Another definition, which does not appear to have been 
endorsed by any high authority, supposes the germ to be 
brought into being, and not simply developed, by the agency 
of parents. Professor Huxley says : 

' In all animals and plants above the lowest, the germ is a nucleated 
cell, using that term in its broadest sense ; and the first step in the 
process of the evolution of the individual is. the division of this cell into 
two or more portions. The process of division is repeated, until the 
organism, from being unicellular, becomes multicellular. The single 
cell becomes a cell-aggregate ; and it is to the growth and metamor- 
phosis of the cells of the cell-aggregate thus produced, that all the 
organs and tissues of the adult owe their origin.' 

"This is the latest phase of science on this subject, what can 
be perceived by the eye, aided by the best optical instruments 
of the present time, and is worth but little. For, like the inves- 
tigations of all questions respecting natural phenomena, it does 
not begin to go back far enough to show the real conditions, 
although many scientists, caring more to magnify their knowl- 
edge than to arrive at truth, or in their conceit and ignorance 
supposing they know something, when they know nothing, are 
apparently much satisfied with results, and talk with great con- 
fidence about conditions, that are essentially or entirely hidden 
from view. 

"Mr. Huxley, recognizing this insufficiency of knowledge, 
whilst accepting epigenesis, adds: 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 3 I 

' Nevertheless, though the doctrine of epigenesis as understood by 
Harvey has definitely triumphed over the doctrine of evolution as under- 
stood by his opponents of the eighteenth century, it is not impossible 
that when the analysis of the process of development is carried still 
further, and the origin of the molecular components of the physically 
gross, though sensibly minute, bodies which we term germs is traced, 
the theory of development will approach more nearly to metamorphosis 
than to epigenesis.' 

"That like comes from like is the great law of growth. 
This only is wanting : that the thing to be developed 
should be devised and started. The watch must be made 
before it can keep time ; and to make it there must be some 
adequate power. So, too, there must be some power to correct 
it when out of order, for it is no more able to repair itself than 
it is to create itself. 

"An adequate power to create ! What does the old Pine think 
would be an adequate power? In the great universe there is 
but one. That power is mind — the same power that made 
the watch, only it is most evident that a greater mind made 
the machine man, than that which made the watch. So, too, 
it was a greater mind which made the watch, than that which 
built the nest of a sparrow. Among men there is a large dif- 
ference of creating or designing power. And it is most evi- 
dent that mind thus varies in its capabilities, from its smallest 
manifestation to its greatest, that Infinite Mind by which, 
directly or indirectly, all things are made. 



132 ELLEN OR THE 



XIV. 



' ' DROFESSOR DANA, in the introduction of his work on 
* geology, says : 

' While the earth is a sphere in a world kingdom, it is also important 
to observe that the earth holds a very subordinate position in the 
system of the heavens. It is one of the smaller satellites of the sun — 
i-i, 200,000th that of the sun. And the planetary system to which it 
belongs, although 3,000,000,000 of miles in radius, is but one among 
myriads, the nearest star 7,000 times further off than Neptune. Thus 
it appears that the earth is but a very small part in the universe. 
Hence we naturally conclude that it is a dependent part of the solar 
system ; that, as a satellite of the sun, in conjunction with other 
planets, it could no more have existed before the sun or our planetary 
system before the universe of which it is a part, than the hand before 
the body which it obediently attends. 

' Although thus diminutive, the laws of the earth are the laws of, the 
universe. * * * The elements may differ in different systems, but 
it is a difference such as exists among known elements, and could give 
us no new fundamental laws. New crystalline forms might be found in 
the depths of space, but the laws of crystallography would be the same 
that are displayed before us among the crystals of' the earth. A text- 
book on Crystallography, Physics, or Celestial Mechanics, printed in 
our printing offices, would serve for the universe. The universe, if 
open throughout to our explorations, would vastly expand our knowl- 
edge, and science might have a more beautiful superstructure, but its 
basement laws would be the same.' 



I* 




WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 35 

"If this is true, — and Ellen thinks it is, — it is equally true 
that the laws of the mind of man are the laws of Mind through- 
out the universe. And it follows that by the study of the 
mind of man or animals, — mind as we are able to per- 
ceive its workings, — must come our knowledge of the laws 
by which all intelligence operates. This much is certain : 
that all the knowledge we have or can have of intelligence 
we get here. And, indeed, all that we know, or can know, is 
but a perception by our own intelligence. And Ellen sees 
that as man creates separately all the different things which he 
makes, or as animals do the same, so intelligence everywhere 
thus creates, the only question being how much is included in 
each separate creation. Nor is it possible for any one to 
doubt this, who studies the character of mind and follows the 
dictates of reason. And it is in this manner the Bible tells us, 
and it tells us right, that the different things were created by 
God. 

"But there is a certain amount of possible variation, 
through generation, of the things created. Thus different 
breeds or varieties of animals and plants are formed, by 
proper crossing, and, perhaps, with more or less aid from 
the differences caused by external influences. Nor does 
Ellen think that it is possible to tell exactly how far these vari- 
eties may extend. What are frequently called species may be 
varieties. And every plant or tree is a manufacturing estab- 
lishment for the production of seed ; and every seed is a 
miniature plant or tree. Near the window to Ellen's room is 
a larch which every year is loaded with its pretty cones. And 
thus the myriads of things in nature which are said to have 



136 ELLEN OR THE 

life are made. Surely the old Pine didn't suppose that the fac- 
tories of God would be the same as those of man, running with 
water power or steam power, or even by electricity? Ellen 
doesn't think so at all, but supposes they would be far more 
remarkable, as much so as are the things manufactured by 
them. And therefore she is not at all surprised at the compli- 
cated character of their machinery. But they cannot manu- 
facture any thing other than what they were made to manufac- 
ture ; for the machinery is not adapted to it. For in the 
great universe as well as with man, the principle of a sufficient 
cause must exist. And therefore for every change in the 
thing made there must be a corresponding change in the 
machinery that makes it. Nor can this machinery to 
advantage be very much changed. And therefore it is 
better, because simpler and easier, to make new for the 
production of entirely different things than to undertake to 
alter machinery which was employed for other purposes. 
That is, the principle of special creation is here far simpler 
and better than that of evolution, although to make different 
varieties of the same thing it might be easier or better to make 
use of the same machinery slightly altered. 

"Does the old Pine think that a cotton mill can manufacture 
ploughs, or a carriage manufactory teaspoons? The old Pine 
knows that in all the shops of man — and there are a 
great many of them — each manufactures the goods of its 
kind ; nor can it make any other. And so it is in nature ; 
every mill does the work it was made to do, and can do no 
other. This is the law of its creation. If new things are to 
be made, new machinery is required to make them ; although 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 37 

it is true both with man and in nature that manufactories 
may and often do make different kinds of the things which 
they manufacture. Thus a piano manufactory makes upright, 
square, and grand pianos ; a boot and shoe manufactory, 
several kinds of boots and shoes. Thus, too, in nature, vari- 
eties are produced. That is, within limits the same manufac- 
tory may vary results ; but it is always within limits. For 
otherwise the machinery would become too complex. The 
principle of accomplishing results by the simplest and best 
methods, governs throughout all nature. The old Pine has 
lots of common sense, hasn't he? Ellen knows a good many 
folks that haven't any; the kind that believe in evolution, or 
that are misled by those who believe in evolution. 

"Thus, intelligence makes all things; for creation (the uni- 
verse) is only an expression of mind. Mind is the great 
worker, incessantly creating, guiding, and supervising all things. 
It is the all ; for material things are but an expression of it, 
both evanescent and unimportant." 

"And why does Ellen say that they are unimportant?" 

"Of course they are unimportant," she replied. "Does the 
old Pine think that what is important could perish? Ellen 
thinks not. All material things are unimportant because mind 
itself, by which they are all made, is independent of them, and 
if wanted can make others as good, or better." 

"But," I said, " the old Pine cannot see why the old may not 
be as good as the new, and if that is so, why it should not be 
continued indefinitely and forever." 

"But the old isn't as good as the new with those things that 
perish," she said. "The order of the universe, as we know it, is 



138 ELLEN OR THE 

mind forever creating, and the things that it creates as con- 
stantly perishing. Does the old Pine think that he could 
invent a universe better than this? Ellen doesn't think that 
she could. And she thinks, also, that it is the best possible. 
Indeed, when she perceives, included in it, the principle of 
righteousness, she knows that it is the best possible. All the 
conditions of existence it is impossible for Ellen to perceive. 
Yet she cannot but believe that all things contribute to a per- 
fect whole." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, is it not possible that the principle of 
evolution exists in the intellect?" 

"Ellen thinks it is possible," she replied. "It must so exist 
if it exists anywhere ; for it is there that all things are created." 

"And how does Ellen know this?" I asked. 

"From the perception of the workings of intellect," she 
answered. "Nothing can be more certain than that all which 
man makes, or that all those things of whose making we have 
knowledge, originate in the intellect. The inference is beyond 
question that all things so originate. The thing produced 
comes from an idea, as an organism from a seed. 

"The beginning of everything is conception by intellect. 
This is the Idea, or model. Then follows the exercise of will, 
also connected with intellect, determining that the thing con- 
ceived shall be created, and creating it. If, then, any evolu- 
tion takes place, it must start in the intellect, either in the con- 
ception of the idea of which it would become a part; or by a 
succession of ideas, independent of, but suggested by, each 
other, and in that sense evolved from each other. For 
an idea is a thought, the production of mind, and mind in 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 39 

its action follows certain laws. Thus similar things suggest 
similar. But there would appear to be no stronger prin- 
ciple in the operation of mind than that the perception of 
anything suggests improvement. It also suggests variety. 
When Ellen examines the things made by man she finds 
this is universal. The different kinds of chairs, the different 
kinds of crockery, the different kinds of houses, the different 
kinds of carriages, are many, almost endless, and often, though 
not always, are constantly being added to. And the same is 
true of anything and all things made by man. But this is 
precisely what occurs in nature in the existences of the uni- 
verse, whether these be spheres or violets. The universal law 
here, as with man, is variety and improvement. And therefore 
by the ordinary laws of intellect everything which exists 
is explained. We see that a principle of evolution, or 
successive creation, is natural to the intellect. It is evi- 
dent, too, that the Idea is capable of including a certain 
amount of evolution or growth. This is illustrated in all life, 
which passes through certain phases of development and 
includes within the sphere of its creation the principle of repro- 
duction. The question then becomes : where are the limits of 
the use of such principle in the order of creation? This Ellen 
thinks : that those limits are not so much in the power of God 
as in the judgment of God. For nature always adopts the 
simplest and best, methods. 

"But there is ajaother principle in creation, which, indeed, is 
at the very bottom of all science, or, as Ellen thinks, is essential 
to order, without which creation would be impossible, — the prin- 
ciple of a Sufficient Cause. This principle cannot be violated. 



140 ELLEN OR THE 

and this must be taken into consideration in the question how 
far evolution is contained in the Idea. For this great law of a 
sufficient cause makes it imperative that wherever evolution 
exists, the seeds or germs of it must exist. And therefore if 
evolution was true, or so far as it is true, there must be included 
in the primitive matter, from which any evolution began, the 
seeds or germs of everything evolved from it; excepting 
possibly some few unimportant conditions (so far as regards 
the question of species), which might be added by external 
causes ; such as possibly the loss of horns in cattle, or eyesight 
in animals confined in caves ; and in each remove all the rest 
must be contained. And then there would have to be also 
included another principle that would prevent the development 
of all but certain germs, at any one time. 
"Perceiving this, Mr. Darwin wrote: 

1 We are led to believe, as formerly explained, that every character 
which occasionally reappears is present in a latent form in each genera- 
tion. * * * In every living creature we may feel assured that a 
host of lost characters lie ready to be evolved under proper conditions. 
We cannot fathom the marvellous complexity of an organic being ; but 
on the hypothesis here advanced the complexity is much increased. 
Each living creature must be looked at as a microcosm — a little uni- 
verse — formed of a host of self-propagating organisms, inconceivably 
minute, and as numerous as the stars of heaven.' 

" But the old Pine will readily see that this would not be the 
simplest or best manner of creation, but instead, if carried out 
to any large extent, a very complex and most undesirable 
manner. And therefore it cannot hold to any large extent, 
but instead the different species are made by separate creation. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 141 

For then not the elementary principles of evefything would 
have to be included in each seed or germ, but only such ele- 
mentary principle as belongs to the species or thing of which 
it is the seed or germ. 

"When we know how intellect does create, it is useless for 
Mr. Darwin or any other scientist to tell how it ought to create. 
Let them look at their copy. They will find corresponding 
rudimentary organs appearing in the things that man makes. 
In a thousand different artificial things similar principles of 
construction are used. In almost every possible different way 
the similarities or dissimilarities of things appear. The picture 
of a leaf or a bunch of grapes is stamped upon the cover of 
a book ; the bunch of grapes itself or the cut leaf appears upon 
the back of a chair, but there is no reversion. A clock and a 
cotton factory are two very different species of things, and 
made for very different purposes, but both have cog wheels as 
an important part of their structure. Indeed, there are hardly 
any two things, either artificial or natural, which have not 
points of resemblance. Nor is it to Ellen at all singular that 
the different productions of creation should be alike. Absurd 
indeed would that creation be, most grotesque and ridiculous, 
where things did not harmonize with and correspond to each 
other, so that everywhere a certain homogeneity should prevail. 

" There would be no difficulty in manufacturing hypotheses, 
as Mr. Darwin here does, to explain unusual characters, if there 
was sufficient reason, but no hypothesis is necessary. Things 
were made as it was intended that they should be ; and we may 
well believe that He by whom they were made knew best what 
He wished to make, and how to make them." 



142 ELLEN OR THE 



XV. 



J3 UT," I said, "Ellen, do not the necessities of growth 
■*— ' and progress suggest this principle of evolution, and 
even demand some such for ultimate results? May it not take 
place in some form, somewhere? Surely Ellen doesn't suppose 
that all things remain eternally in a plane of no advancement?" 
"The old Pine asks an awful lot of questions," she said. 
" Ellen never saw a tree and never heard of one that asked so 
many questions as the old Pine. Ellen thinks that it does take 
place unquestionably, not as the evolutionists say — by the evo- 
lution of one material thing into another material thing; this 
does not take place — but at death, as the Bible says, by the 
evolution of soul from the material into the spiritual in its 
flight to an eternal existence. The old Pine can't see this evo- 
lution, can he?" 

•"No," I said, "the old Pine can't see any thing except the 
material." 

"But he knows that the spiritual exists, for we recognize 
it if we do not see it. We see its workings ; we know that they 
are infinitely superior to all that happens in the material world, 
over which spirit has absolute rule. Did the old Pine 
suppose that all this great creation stopped with the material? 
Ellen thinks that this is only one phase of that which is written 
in infinity; and, instead of being the most important, is 
by far the least important. The old Pine must remember 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 43 

that we can see only what our eye is fitted to see, and we 
can see this only when there is a sufficient and proper light. 
Without light we could not see any thing; and it is known 
that there are many material things which we are never 
able to see. Indeed, we have reason to suppose that infi- 
nitely the greater number of these we are unable to see. 
Some because they are too far off; some, perhaps, because they 
are too near; and an infinite number, in all respects similar to 
those that we see, only too small or too attenuated for the 
recognition of our vision. And the inability of the eye to see 
the spiritual, which we know exists, is the suggestion of the 
different conditions which belong to existence, and of the higher 
conditions of this existence which are entirely invisible to us. 
Had we a different organism of sight, unquestionably all that we 
see now would pass away as a dissolving view. New worlds 
and another universe would appear. How many of these there 
may be, Ellen knows not, but in their succession must come the 
culmination of the greater universe; the perfect condition to 
which all the rest leads up. For, as Ellen has said before, it is 
impossible that anything so vast and so wonderful as this universe 
is, as we know it, should exist unfinished and imperfect, — that its 
culmination should be something so in every way inferior as man, 
or as fleeting as this material universe. In its completeness the 
greater universe must be perfect ; and all its parts must con- 
tribute to such result. In its perfection everything which 
the spirit or mind recognizes as undesirable will have dis- 
appeared, and only the Good, the Beautiful, and the True 
remain." 

"Ellen has a most vivid imagination," I said. 



144 ELLEN OR THE 

" It would be impossible for imagination to soar beyond the 
possible," she replied; "but it is reason, and not imagination, 
which now guides Ellen's thoughts. She suggests only what 
her reason shows her must be substantially true. It is all as 
simple as the succession of different elements here on our earth, 
or the growth of an orange. It is but the encasing of 
existences, each independent of another; all complete in them- 
selves, and joined in a perfect whole. It is the way that things 
are made as we see them here, and, as Ellen thinks, it is the 
way that the greater universe is made, whose outlines we can 
here so darkly see, and within which, as Ellen thinks, all other 
existences are held." 

"And why," I said, "do not the scientists perceive how 
improbable it is that their power of vision, the power of vision 
of man, should be able to interpret or understand more than an 
insignificant part of creation? Why should they suppose that 
it does more than this, knowing, as they must, how entirely 
ignorant we are of what creation is?" 

"Because of the obliquity of their mental vision," she said. 
"For in making their experiments, they get so accustomed to 
depend upon the eye that they are inclined to doubt the exist- 
ence of anything which they cannot see. But the eye, though 
very useful for what it is able to do, and greatly aided by 
artificial means, is adapted only to physical phenomena. And 
even here, with all its artificial aids, its vision is most limited. 
But nature has supplied us with another organ of sight — the 
mind's eye — of infinitely superior capacity, having, perhaps, an 
innate power of perception of all knowledge. We know not 
at all what may be its limits. Can the old Pine think of any 



2 m 




Runaway Falls. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 47 

thing more foolish than to throw aside its use? For only by 
the intellectual eye can anything be understood. 

"In the Phaedo of Plato occurs the following: 

' Well, but there is another thing, Simmias : Is there or is there not 
an absolute justice? 

'Assuredly there is. 

'And an absolute beauty and absolute good? 

'Of course. 

' But did you ever behold any of them with your eyes? 

' Certainly not. 

' Or did you ever reach them with any other bodily sense ? (And I 
speak not of these alone, but of absolute greatness, and health, and 
strength, and of the essence or true nature of everything.) Has the 
reality of them ever been perceived by you through the bodily organs? 
or rather, is not the nearest approach to the knowledge of their several 
natures made by him who so orders his intellectual vision as to have 
the most exact conception of the essence of that which he considers? 

' Certainly. 

' And he attains to the knowledge of them in their highest purity who 
goes to each of them with the mind alone, not allowing when in the 
act of thought the intrusion or introduction of sight or any other sense 
in the company of reason, but with the very light of the mind in her 
clearness penetrates into the very light of truth in each ; he has 
got rid, as far as he can, of eyes and ears and of the whole body, 
which he conceives of only as a disturbing element, hindering the soul 
from the acquisition of knowledge when in company with her — is not 
this the sort of man who, if ever man did, is likely to attain the knowl- 
edge of existence?' 

" Mr. Huxley says : 

1 No delusion is greater than the notion that method and industry 
can make up for lack of mother wit, either in science or in practical 



148 ELLEN OR THE 

life ; and it is strange that, with his knowledge of mankind, Bacon 
would have dreamed that he, or any other, "via invendiendi scientias" 
would level men's wits and leave little scope for that inborn capacity 
which is called genius.' 

" It is by the mind's eye alone that we can explore the pos- 
sibilities of that existence which extends beyond material con- 
ditions; that in which the body has no part — at least such 
body as we know here. 

"Man consists of soul and body, of which the soul is beyond 
all question ruler. The body is especially fitted for the use of 
the soul. Through it and through it only, at least during this 
life, the soul exercises all its faculties, and accomplishes what- 
ever it is able to accomplish." 

" And what are these faculties, Ellen?" I asked. 

" Thought, perception, emotion." 

"All of which it exercis'es through the organs of the body?" 

"Yes." 

"And it cannot exercise any of them without these organs?" 

"No. Whatever this soul is, or wherever it comes from, its 
existence is made known to us only through its use of the 
organs of the body. So that when these organs are unfitted 
for use the soul is no longer recognizable. And when through 
death they are permanently unfitted, it departs forever." 

"And how are these organs kept ready for use?" I asked. 

"By the processes of life, so that instantly that is ended the 
soul is no longer visible." 

"And can we see the soul?" 

''Through its manifestations we can. It looks through 
the windows of the eyes. It is always reflected in the counte- 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 49 

nance, and, when feeling is most intense, stares through every 
pore of the face, so that it seems as if it might be separated 
from the body." 

"But is this not the soul itself, then, Ellen, which we see?' 1 
I asked. 

"The old Pine is always trying to throw confusion upon 
Ellen. No," she said, "it is not the soul, but its manifesta- 
tions." 

"And how does Ellen know this?" 

"She knows what she sees," she said; "love, hope, desire — 
all the varieties of emotion and thought, depicted as upon a 
canvas. But where there is love there must be a lover, and 
where there is thought there must be a thinker. And the 
thinker and the lover, and not the thought and the emotion, is 
and must be the soul. This is proof, old Pine, that what we 
see are the manifestations of the soul, its handiwork, and not 
the soul itself. And these manifestations are material, else we 
would not see them." 

"And the soul is imperceptible?" 

"Yes," she said, "to the physical eye, though on that 
account it is none the less real." 

"And what is this soul, Ellen?" 

"It is the individual: that which thinks; that which acts; 
that which sees ; that which hears ; that which feels ; that 
which smells; that which tastes; that which is responsible." 

"And what finally becomes of this soul, Ellen?" 

" It disappears, how or where we know not. But of this we 
may be certain that it cannot be destroyed." 

"And why may we be certain of that, Ellen?" 



150 ELLEN OR THE 

" It is our experience in regard to material things, and 
is it possible for the old Pine to conceive that the spir- 
itual, which as we know rules over and uses the material,- 
should perish, when the material cannot? Ellen thinks 
this is inconceivable. 

"Again, everything which exists must be composed of 
some kind of substance. From nothing, nothing can come. 
The soul is composed of what we call a spiritual substance ; 
the body of a material one. All knowledge shows us that 
no substance can be destroyed. For it would be as impos- 
sible for something to pass into nothing, as for something to 
come out of nothing. We see, too, as a matter of fact, that 
nothing is destroyed. The wood burns up, but the ashes, the 
smoke, and the gases weigh as much as the wood burned. 
One thing is changed to another, but nothing is destroyed." 

"And Ellen thinks this same condition of change takes place 
with the spiritual as with the material?" 

" Ellen thinks nothing of the kind, and she has told the old 
Pine so, but rather that it changeth not. That in this consists 
the difference between the two : that the material is composed 
of parts and disintegrates ; but that the spiritual is not so 
composed, but in its essence is immortal." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 53 



XVI. 



^QO that Ellen thinks that while the body changes into 
^ something else the soul continues its existence else- 
where?" 

"Yes," she said. " In the Alcibiades of Plato, is the follow- 
ing colloquy: 

Soc. Come, now, I, beseech you, tell me with whom you are con- 
versing ? — with whom but with me ? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. As I am with you ? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. That is to say, I Socrates, am talking ? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. And I in talking use words ? 

Al. Certainly. 

Soc. And talking and using words are, as you would say, the same ? 

Al. Yery true. 

Soc. And the user is not the same as the thing he uses ? 

Al. What do you mean ? 

Soc. I will explain : the shoemaker, for example, uses a square 
tool, and a circular tool, and other tools for cutting ? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. But the tool is not the same as the cutter and user of the 
tool ? 

Al. Of course not. 

Soc. And in the same way the instrument of the harper is to be 
distinguished from the harper himself? 



154 ELLEN OR THE 

Al. It is. 

Soc. Now the question which I asked was whether you conceive 
the user to be always different from that which he uses ? 

Al. I do. 

Soc. Then what shall we say of the shoemaker ? Does he cut with 
his tools only or with his hands ? 

Al. With his hands as well. 

Soc. He uses his hands too? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. And does he use his eyes in cutting leather? 

Al. He does. 

Soc. And we admit that the user is not the same with the things 
which he uses ? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. Then the shoemaker and the harper are to be distinguished 
from the hands and feet which they use ? 

Al. That is clear. 

Soc. And does not a man use the whole body? 

Al. Certainly. 

Soc. And that which uses is different from that which is used ? 

Al. True. 

Soc. Then a man is not the same as his own body? 

Al. That is the inference. 

Soc. What is he, then ? 

Al. I cannot say. 

Soc. Nay, you can say that he is the user of the body. 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. And the user of the body is the soul? 

Al. Yes, the soul. 

Soc. And the soul rules ? 

Al. Yes. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE' 1 55 

Soc. Let me make an assertion which will, I think, be universally 
admitted. 

Al. What is that ? 

Soc. That man is one of three things. 

Al. What are they? 

Soc. Soul, body, or the union of the two. 

Al. Certainly. 

Soc. But did we not say that the actual ruling principle of the 
body is man? 

Al. Yes, we did. 

Soc. And does the body rule over itself? 

Al. Certainly not. 

Soc. It is subject, as we were saying? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. Then that is not what we are seeking? 

Al. It would seem not. 

Soc. But may we say that the union of the two rules over the body, 
and consequently that this is man ? 

Al. Very likely. 

Soc. The most unlikely of all things ; for if one of the members is 
subject, the two united cannot possibly rule. 

Al. True. 

Soc. But since neither the body, nor the union of the two, is man, 
either man has no real existence, or the soul is man? 

Al. Just so. 

Soc. Would you have a more precise proof that the soul is man ? 

Al. No ; I think that the proof is sufficient. 

Soc. If the proof, although not quite precise, is fair, that is enough 
for us ; more precise proof will be supplied when we have discovered 
that which we were led to omit, from a fear that the inquiry would be 
too much protracted. 



156 ELLEN OR THE 

Al. What was that? 

Soc. What I meant, when I said that absolute existence must be 
first considered ; but now, instead of absolute existence, we have been 
considering the nature of individual existence, and that may be suffi- 
cient ; for surely there is nothing belonging to us which has more ab- 
solute existence than the soul? 

Al. There is nothing. 

Soc. Then we may truly conceive that you and I are conversing 
with one another, soul to soul? 

Al. Very true. 

Soc. And that is just what I was saying — that I, Socrates, am not 
arguing or talking with the face of Alcibiades, but with the real Alci- 
biades ; and that is with his soul. 

Al. True. 

Soc. Then he who bids a man know himself, would have him know 
his soul? 

Al. That appears to be true. 

Soc. He, then, whose knowledge only extends to the body, knows 
the things of a man, and not the man himself? 

Al. That is true. 

Soc. Then neither the physician regarded as a physician, nor the 
trainer regarded as a trainer, knows himself? 

Al. He does not. 

Soc. Then the husbandman and the other craftsmen are very far 
from knowing themselves, for they would seem not even to know their 
own belongings ? When regarded in relation to the arts which they 
practice they are even further removed, for they only know the be- 
longings of the body, which minister to the body. 

Al. That is true. 

Soc. Then if temperance is the knowledge of self, in respect of his 
art, none of them is temperate ? 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 59 

Al. I agree. 

Soc. Again, he who cherishes his body cherishes not himself, but 
what belongs to him ? 

Al. That is true. 

Soc. But he who cherishes his money, cherishes neither himself 
nor his belongings, but is in a stage yet further removed from himself? 

Al. I agree. 

Soc. Then the money-maker has really ceased to be occupied with 
his own concerns? 

Al. True. 

Soc. And if any one has fallen in love with the person of Alcibia- 
des, he loves not Alcibiades, but the belongings of Alcibiades ? 

Al. True. 

Soc. But he who loves your soul is the true lover? 

Al. That is the necessary inference. 

Soc. The lover of the body goes away when the flower of youth 
fades ? 

Al. True. 

Soc. But he who loves the soul goes not away, as long as the soul 
follows after virtue ? 

Al. Yes. 

Soc. And I am the lover who goes not away, but remains with you, 
when you are no longer young and the rest are gone. 



l60 ELLEN OR THE 



XVII. 

**\ TOW, Ellen thinks that is pretty nice, Mr. Pine." 

* ^ "It is very elegant," I said; "but Ellen hasn't yet 
told the old Pine what sleep and death are." 

" But Ellen has told the old Pine that thought is manufac- 
tured in the organs of the brain. For man cannot think except 
with the organs of the brain, any more than he can see without 
the eye, or hear without the ear. It is in those organs that 
thought and the emotions are made, out of material furnished by 
the body. But they are manufactured by the soul. The brain 
is the mill, the circulation of the blood the force that runs it. 
The body also furnishes the material used, at least in part, as 
well as the force and the machinery. The soul is the intelli- 
gence. It is the weaver who makes the goods, using the 
machinery of the body and the material furnished by the body. 
And this soul is and must be of the divine essence ; for how else 
could it understand the language of the Almighty ; — think, 
as Kepler expressed it, the thoughts of God after Him? Goethe 

wrote : 

' Du gleichst dem Geist, den du begreifst.' 
(Thou art like the Spirit whom thou comprehendest.) 

There is and can be no question that our intelligence is in 
some sense similar to that Supreme Intelligence by whose 
thought all things have been designed. And as there could 
be no goods made in any factory on earth, although all the 
machinery and material were present, without intelligence to 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD P1XE l6l 

conduct the making, so without the soul there could be no 
thought or emotion." 

"But why, Ellen," I asked, "if the soul is of the divine 
essence, doesn't it make better goods ; or, rather, why does it 
make so many poor goods?" 

"Because of its conditions," she said, "and perhaps of its 
imperfection. Its mills may be poor or out of order. Ellen 
does not know. It is because of imperfection that death 
takes place, for the perfect could not die. But this much we 
know, that God made man, nor can we doubt the wisdom of his 
work. His infinite power is combined with infinite love and 
infinite wisdom. It is very evident that all things mortal, in the 
great aeons of eternity, are so brief, that not what they are 
but what they lead to, is the question of importance. And 
surely, old Pine, we can all of us well have faith enough in God 
to trust Him that good, and good alone, will be the ultimate 
result of all His works." 

"And sleep, Ellen?" 

"Sleep," she said, "is a provision by which the body is 
enabled the longer to perform its work. The body is a compli- 
cated machine capable of doing many things. But it can do 
nothing except through the use of material. So that 
whether Ellen walks, or jumps, or works; laughs, or smiles, 
or weeps ; thinks, or talks, or dreams ; she does it by the use of 
material furnished by her body." 

"And how much material does it take for a smile or for a 
dream?" 

" Ellen doesn't know," she answered. " Just a tiny little bit for 
a smile. But when Ellen comes up this mountain to see the old 



1 62 ELLEN OR THE 

Pine, she consumes an awful lot of material, as she can tell from 
her appetite when she gets back. The body, whether animal or 
plant, is born into the world with a very limited supply of 
the materials necessary for its activities. It just has to live 
from hand to mouth, old Pine, but it is able, under normal 
conditions, to supply itself with more as wanted." 

"And how does it do this?" 

"Through the operation of the digestive organs and the lungs," 
she replied. " From food and water the tissues of the body 
are replenished, and by respiration oxygen is supplied ; for the 
air is composed in part of oxygen, nearly twenty-three and one- 
tenth parts oxygen, to seventy-six and nine-tenths of nitrogen 
by weight, with a trifle of other substances. Of this the blood 
gets such supply as it needs, yielding up, to be expelled by the 
lungs, carbonic acid received from the tissues." 

"And what are the tissues?" 

"The tissues are the fabric," she replied, "of which the 
organs of both animals and plants are composed." 

"And are these the same?" 

"They are similar," she said; "but tissues which are absent 
from plants occur in animals. These are called animal tissues, 
and relate to movement or sensation, as the muscles and nerves. 
Those of which plants are formed are called vegetable tissues, 
as are the corresponding ones in animals, as epithelium 
or bone. Physiology teaches that the animal is made up of 
osseous tissue, or bone; muscular tissue, or flesh; adipose 
tissue, or fat ; cartilaginous tissue, or gristle ; connective tissue 
to bind the whole together, and pigmentary tissue, or coloring 
matter." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 63 

" And of what are these tissues composed?" 

"All plants and all animals," she replied, "are composed of 
organic and mineral or inorganic substances. The mineral sub- 
stances exist in the crust of the earth, but the organic are pri- 
marily formed in the plant or animal from inorganic matter 
which they have absorbed. Plants are chiefly formed of these 
inorganic constituents, all of which contain carbon and hydro- 
gen, some of them consisting entirely of these two elements ; but 
the greater proportion also contain oxygen and nitrogen, and 
in minute quantities several other constituents. 

"The inorganic constituents found in the ashes of all plants 
are, as the chemists tell us, potash, soda, magnesia and lime, in 
combination with phosphoric, sulphuric, hydrochloric and car- 
bonic acids, and additionally iron, manganese, and silica, with 
traces of fluorine. Seaweeds contain also bromine and iodine. 
Other substances are occasionally found. Among the most 
essential of the inorganic constituents is water, sometimes 
amounting to from eighty-six to ninety-six per cent, of the plant. 
It follows that the nutrition and development of plants depend 
on their absorbing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur 
compounds, with water and such inorganic compounds as yield 
the necessary inorganic constituents, in a form capable of 
assimilation. 

"In animals all the substances necessary for development and 
growth are furnished by the blood, which obtains them through 
digestion and respiration ; for food and drink are prepared by 
the digestive organs, and enter the blood either directly or 
through the lymphatic system." 

"And what is this lymphatic system?" 



[64 ELLEN OR THE 

"Vessels which carry the lymph, — a colorless or faintly 
yellowish red fluid, very similar to blood but lacking the red 
corpuscles." 

" And what is its' use?" 

"Two-fold, as again physiology teaches. First, to convey 
from the tissues to the blood effete matter to be afterwards 
secreted by the skin, lungs, and kidneys ; second, to supply new 
material for the formation of the blood. This lymphatic system 
also includes the lacteals, so called, which only differ from other 
lymphatic vessels in carrying chyle instead of lymph." 

"And what is chyle?" 

"It is a part of the matter evolved by the different processes 
of digestion. The food undergoes various changes after it 
enters the alimentary canal. First, in the stomach it is con- 
verted into a pulpy mass called chyme, which, passing into 
the small intestine, is acted upon by the bile, pancreatic fluid, 
and intestinal juice, and thus a portion of it is changed into the 
chyle, a milky-looking fluid, the chemical constituents of which 
are much the same as blood, which is absorbed or sucked up 
by the lacteals, and finally converted into pure blood." 

"And what part does respiration perform?" 

" Its great object is the furnishing of oxygen to the system 
and the carrying off of carbonic acid." 

" And how does it do this?" 

"Through the laws of chemical attraction. The air taken 
into the lungs is composed, as Ellen said, in part of oxygen. 
The lungs are divided into innumerable cells, the estimate 
being that there are six hundred millions of these in an 
adult person. The blood driven by the heart through the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 65 

arteries, veins, and capillaries is distributed among these cells 
separated from the air only by a thin and moist membrane 
through which the laws of chemical attraction easily operate, 
by which the blood gets rid of its carbonic acid and takes in a 
new supply of oxygen." 

"And where does the blood obtain its carbonic acid ? " 

"Picks it up in its course through the system, and is very 
glad to exchange it for a new supply of pure, fresh oxygen." 

" But what becomes of this carbonic acid ? " 

" It is carried out into the atmosphere, where it is at once 
absorbed by vegetable life ; all the trees and plants, which 
use the carbon for their tissues, giving back the oxygen. It 
is in this way that God has provided for the existence of dif- 
ferent things in His great kingdom. Thus He builds up the 
animal world, and thus He builds up the vegetable world. And 
thus we see again how nature is a great circulatory worker ; 
how the same material, never destroyed, is used over and over 
and over again, now sustaining life in the vegetable world, and 
now in the animal world." 

" And how is the oxygen distributed to the tissues in every 
part of the body?" 

"Also by the blood, which flows in every part in a perfect 
network of arteries, veins, and capillaries. It distributes 
this oxygen, which at once goes into combustion with the 
carbon of the tissues, enabling the body to perform all its 
activities. Just isn't it a busy condition? And this is life — 
Ellen's life from day to day, and also the old Pine's life. The 
digestion from food and water furnishes to man the carbon, and 
what other inorganic substances are needed. The respiration 



1 66 ELLEN OR THE 

furnishes the oxygen. Chemical combination evolves heat, 
which is so important in all the phenomena of life." 

"But what is it, Ellen, which causes the circulation of the 
blood?" 

"The organs of circulation, as physiology also teaches us, 
consist of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The 
heart, which is essentially muscular, is divided into four 
cavities. Two of them, called auricles, receive the blood 
as it flows into the heart, while the other two, termed ven- 
tricles, are for the purpose of propelling the blood through 
the lungs and general system respectively. The vessels that 
carry the blood into the auricles are called veins, and the 
vessels through which the blood is driven onwards from the 
ventricles are named arteries. The right auricle contracting 
drives the venous or impure blood into the right ventricle 
through an opening guarded by a valve, to prevent a reflux 
movement. The right ventricle, now filled, contracts, forcing 
the blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. This 
artery is also guarded by valves to prevent the blood's return. 
It gradually divides into smaller and smaller branches, which 
merge into capillaries. It is in these last distributed over the 
interior of all the air cells, (of which the lung is mainly com- 
posed), that the venous or impure blood comes in contact with 
atmospheric air, throws off its carbonic acid gas, its principal 
impurity, and absorbs oxygen, by which processes it is changed 
into pure, or arterial, blood. The capillaries unite to form 
minute veins, which again unite to form larger vessels, until 
finally the blood is collected in the pulmonary veins, through 
which it enters the left auricle, which bv contraction forces it 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE \6j 

into the left ventricle, through an opening also guarded by a 
valve. This left ventricle contracts and drives the blood into 
the aorta, which by its various branches supplies every part of 
the body with pure arterial blood. From the aorta the blood 
enters the capillaries which occur in every part of the system, 
where it undergoes changes the reverse of those occurring in 
the pulmonary capillaries. It parts with its oxygen, becomes 
charged with carbonic acid, and, as it leaves these capillaries 
and enters the veins formed by their union, presents all the 
characters of venous blood ; the veins uniting form two large 
trunks which empty into the right auricle, the point from which 
we started. The principal cause of the circulation is the con- 
traction of the heart, though it is assisted by the elasticity and 
contractility of the arteries and capillaries." 



168 ELLEN OR THE 



XVIII. 



a 



B 



UT what makes the heart, or the arteries, or the capil- 
laries contract?" 

"Forces inherent in them," she answered, "the same as in 
the mainspring of a watch." 

"Not material forces, Ellen ! " 

" Certainly," she said ; " so far as we know, the body is entirely 
formed from material of the physical world. These materials, 
too, as Ellen has said, are necessary to its activities. And this 
is true of those activities, whether physical or mental, for thought 
is attended with the consumption of material as certainly as 
gymnastics. It is in part at least to supply the material used for 
these activities, that new material is required. Thus the body, 
if awake and active, must have food regularly ; but if thrown 
into a trance can dispense with food for a long time." 
• " And are all the activities of the body performed through the 
use of material, Ellen?" 

"Yes," she replied, "and in that respect as well as in respect 
to its being obliged to take in constant new supplies, the 
human body resembles the steam engine. But Ellen has some- 
times thought that perhaps in a far more remarkable manner 
it resembles an engine, or other machinery." 

"And how is this?" I asked. 

"It is," she answered, "that the human engine, as the steam 
engine, may be entirely separate from the intelligence which 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 171 

runs it, and without which any machinery would be useless. 
We know that in all the things made by man this is so. Does 
the same law hold everywhere in the universe? Nature's won- 
derful system of order would suggest not only that it may, but 
that it does." 

"Then Ellen thinks the body of a man or of a tree is com- 
posed of the material belonging to the physical world?" 

"Yes," she said, " it would appear to be entirely so com- 
posed." 

"And after the body is grown or whilst it is growing, its 
activities are entirely dependent upon such material ? " 

" Not only its activities," she answered, " but its very exist- 
ence is so dependent. For, if the breath stops which brings 
in such materials, the action of the body ceases. And the 
same is true, though not so quickly, if food cannot be had." 

"And, as Ellen has said, this engine of the body, whether of 
a man or of a plant, is very similar to a steam engine, first, in 
that it is composed of material things, and second, that its 
activities are made possible by further supplies of such 
material?" 

"Yes," she replied, "in these respects they are alike." 
" But this principle of rest which Ellen thinks so necessary 
to man is not necessary to the engine of iron?" 

"Ellen begs pardon," she said, "but she thinks it is equally 
necessary, and in exactly the same manner. Man sleeps and 
plants sleep. The pretty little flowers all go to sleep. So, too*, 
the steam engine must have its rest, if it would long endure. 
For motion disarranges, and violent and continued motion 
must soon destroy. Rest allows the particles of anything to 



172 ELLEN OR THE 

regain their normal positions, a thing very important in the 
economy of anything that is used. And this same law holds 
true equally, as Ellen thinks, in those things made by man and 
those made by nature, as of necessity it should, since they are 
composed of the same or similar material. Indeed, here, as in 
all other respects, as Ellen thinks, the same laws hold true. 
With equal and exact force a law of nature enters the domain 
of man. And this is always so, for that little bit of creation 
which we see, or of which we are a part, is an epitome of the 
whole ; nor does it vary in the slightest degree from the con- 
ditions which belong to the whole." 

"And what does this principle of sleep do, Ellen?" 

" It gives opportunity for rest to those parts of the body 
which are in constant activity, allowing each particle to regain 
its normal position. But for this, through displacement, the 
machine would soon be out of order and unfit for use. It 
allows also the more complete distribution of supplies to every 
part of the body. It is, in fact, a condition expressly designed 
for the recuperation and preservation of the body, and abso- 
lutely necessary to its prolonged usefulness or existence." 

"And how is it produced?" 

" It is apparently superinduced automatically through fatigue," 
she answered, "by a diminution of the circulation of blood 
in the brain. It has been suggested that among the organs of 
the brain is one of consciousness to arrange and direct, guid- 
ing the person as a rudder a ship, and that this organ and 
those organs through which the senses operate, being the most 
used, succumb first to sleep ; probably are rendered useless 
for work by the diminished circulation of the blood." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 73 

" And the soul, Ellen, — what does it do when the body thus 
sleeps?" 

"Keeps at work, I guess, old Pine; for it must make the 
dreams. There is no one else around to make them." 

" And what are dreams, Ellen? " 

" Thoughts manufactured by the soul in those organs not yet 
disqualified by sleep, but after the organ of consciousness, 
supposing such to exist, has ceased to act. And so insanity 
may come from the injury or permanent incapacity of such 
an organ of consciousness, the same as blindness from 
injury of the organ of the eye, or deafness from that of 
the ear. Idiocy is the result when all the organs of the 
brain are imperfect, from whatever cause. In all these cases the 
trouble is with the body. If this could be remedied the insane 
would reason, and the idiotic think. And so at times persons 
idiotic in most respects are especially bright in some direction > 
as music, or art, or figures, showing that whilst most of the 
organs of the brain are imperfect, some one is all right, perhaps 
especially perfect. All of this is as Ellen thinks, for she can- 
not see how the conditions can be explained in any other 
way." 

" But are the body and the soul parts of one whole?" 

" Ellen thinks not; she thinks the body distinctly separate, 
a machine made for the use of the soul." 

" And how made, Ellen?" 

"Just as man makes things, only made by a higher intelli- 
gence ; for Ellen can see no difference between this machine 
of the body and any machine made by man, as a watch, a 
piano, a vessel, or a steam engine, except in its infinitely 



174 ELLEN OR THE 

superior workmanship. All bodies, of men or animals, as 
Ellen thinks, are automata. Ellen thinks they are as purely 
machines as any inventions of man. But the inventions 
of man are made to carry out his purposes. And so these 
bodies are made in a similar manner, and must be, to carry out 
the purposes of a higher intelligence." 

"Then Ellen thinks that the intelligence connected with 
these bodies is something entirely distinct?" 

"Ellen has no doubt of it." 

"But why should there be bodies of such sort, made in 
such manner?" 

"And why shouldn't there be? Does the old Pine think 
that man alone builds things, whether of use or ornament? 
Or that with him alone is there use for vehicles? All bodies 
were formed by intelligence ; nor is it possible that they 
should have been created only as wanted. Does the old Pine 
think that Avagons, or boats, or ships, or cars, or flower vases, 
or any of the great number of things which man makes 
would be made, if they were not wanted for some use?" 

" Certainly not," I answered; "of course man builds such 
things because he has need of them, or sees uses to which 
they can be put." 

"Yes," she said. "And so it is with those things that are 
made for ornament, and all the things which man designs and 
makes. But Ellen cannot think why it should be, nor does 
she believe that it is any different with those greater intelli- 
gences, whatever they be, who make the wonderful things 
which Ave see, or the, beyond question, infinitely greater 
number Avhich we do not see ;. nor does she think it possible 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 75 

that God himself has created anything or caused anything to 
be created except as He perceived uses for it. But surely the 
old Pine doesn't suppose that all beings have tastes or occupa- 
tions similar to ours?" 

"That would hardly be probable," I said. 

"Not at all probable," she said. "Their occupations must be 
very different, and so their wishes and wants, and all their 
requirements and conceptions, if there are beings of a higher 
order than ourselves, as we know very well that there must 
be, being informed by the Bible, and also by our reason; 
for it would be incredible that the order of creation should 
ascend to man in such an infinite series as it does, but go no 
farther. Thus Mr. Locke says : 

' It is not impossible to conceive, nor repugnant to reason, that there 
may be many species of spirits, as much separated and diversified one 
from another by distinct properties whereof we have no ideas, as the 
species of sensible things are distinguished one from another by qual- 
ities which we know and observe in them. That there should be more 
species of intelligent creatures above us, than there are of sensible and 
material below us, is probable to me from hence ; that in all the visible 
corporeal world, we see no chasms or gaps. All quite down from us 
the descent is by easy steps, and a continued series of things, that in 
each remove differ very little from the other. There are fishes that 
have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region ; and there are 
some birds that are inhabitants of the water, whose blood is cold as 
fishes, and their flesh so like in taste, that the scrupulous are allowed 
them on fish-days. There are animals so near of kin both to birds and 
beasts, that they are in the middle between both ; amphibious animals 
link the terrestrial and aquatic together ; seals live at land and sea, and 
porpoises have the warm blood and entrails of a hog, not to mention 



176 ELLEN OR THE 

what is confidently reported of mermaids or sea-men. There are some 
brutes, that seem to have as much knowledge and reason as some that 
are called men ; and the animal and vegetable kingdoms are so nearly- 
joined, that if you will take the lowest of one, and the highest of the 
other, there will not be perceived any great difference between them ; 
and so on, till we come to the lowest and the most inorganical parts of 
matter, we shall find everywhere, that the several species are linked 
together, and differ but in almost insensible degrees. And when we 
consider the infinite power and wisdom of the Maker, we have reason 
to think, that it is suitable to the magnificent harmony of the universe, 
and the great design and infinite goodness of the Architect, that the 
species of creatures should also, by gentle degrees, ascend upward from 
us toward his infinite perfection, as we see they gradually descend from 
us downward ; which, if it be probable, we have reason then to be per- 
suaded, that there are far more species of creatures above us than there 
are beneath ; we being, in degrees of perfection, much more remote 
from the infinite being of God, than we are from the lowest state of 
being, and that which approaches nearest to nothing. And yet of all 
those distinct species, for the reasons above said, we have no clear dis- 
tinct ideas.' 

"And therefore did God make the vehicles of men's bodies, 
and all the other innumerable bodies fitted to carry life, and so 
indeed as well those innumerable other things that do not seem 
to be so fitted, because there were uses for them. Nor would 
any of these have been made but for such uses, although it is 
not possible for us to tell the exact nature of the uses for which 
the innumerable things of the universe, whether smaller or 
greater, are made. But this we know, that everything sub- 
serves some useful purpose." 

"But certainly," I said, "Ellen doesn't think that the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 77 

purpose served by the bodies of men or animals is that of 
vehicles?" 

"That would appear to be their purpose," she said. "For 
they are all fitted up with conveniences, and have an engine 
and all the necessary machinery for moving about, and take in 
fuel. They would seem to be exceedingly well fitted to act as 
vehicles, with an average life of seventy years. The old 
Pine will see that the will, which is the soul, has nothing to do 
with the beating of the heart. Neither has it anything to do 
with the digestive organs, or, indeed, any of the body's functions. 
It can destroy the body if it wishes, and so leave it ; but the body 
works separately from it. That is, its operations are all carried 
on independently of the soul, to which it is subservient. The 
soul looks out for supplies for the body, clothing to protect it, 
and food and water to enable it to perform its work. And so 
just as much does the engineer for his engine. Nor could the 
engine be of any use, or make a single trip, without the engi- 
neer. Neither could the body without the soul. It could not 
indeed continue to exist; but furnished periodically with 
food and water, it will perform all of its functions while it lasts. 
And so will an engine. There is not a particle of difference in 
this respect, or, as Ellen can see, in any other, except that the 
body is of far superior workmanship." 

"And yet, Ellen, would not the great law of inheritance 
prove that the soul and body are the same, at least that 
they are equally inherited? For nothing would seem to be 
more certain than that members of families resemble each other 
in mental and moral qualities equally with physical. Ellen cer- 
tainly would not deny this." 



I78 ELLEN OR THE 

" Ellen thinks," she said, "that it is an organization that is 
inherited, including both body and soul. For it was an organ- 
ization that was at first created, including the principle of 
reproduction. Knowledge, we know, is not inherited ; and 
therefore if the soul is inherited, it is not knowledge, but a 
power of acquiring and using knowledge, and includes the 
principle of volition. 

"But Ellen has told the old Pine that all the soul accom- 
plishes whilst in the body is done through the body. It 
cannot accomplish anything in this material world, except 
by the body. The body then controls the results obtained as 
the nature of an instrument controls the kind of music 
obtained. Thus, whoever the musician might be, or however 
skilled, it would be impossible to get from a piano any music 
except that of a piano, or from an organ any except that of 
an organ. And thus it would be with all instruments. And 
so, as Ellen thinks, it is with the body. But as the skilled 
musician will get excellent results from a poor instrument, so 
may the soul get such results from an infirm or poorly organ- 
ized body. And, conversely, he who is not a good musician 
can get but indifferent results from the best instrument; and 
this, Ellen thinks, will be the same with the soul and body. 
Between these two extremes there is a wide difference of result. 
And here it is that the virtue of the soul may be exerted, and 
its merit or lack of merit proven." 

"But, Ellen, is there not this difference between the engineer 
and the soul, that the engineer can leave his engine whenever 
he may wish, but the soul cannot leave the body?" 

"Not at all can the engineer leave," she answered, "when 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 79 

the engine is in full operation, and the body is always that. 
Nor could he get off if the engine was a boat in which he was 
crossing a vast body of water or any element in which he 
could not live. That is, he could not get off without serious 
injury, or loss of life. The soul can always get off if it 
chooses ; it can 

' Take arms against a sea of troubles, 
And by opposing end them.' 

"The body appears to be a piece of mechanism, formed 
entirely of material things and by material forces. First, as to 
plants, Ellen might begin at the seed and produce the plant, or 
at the plant and produce the seed. But in accordance with the 
great rule that no fountain can rise higher than its source, nor 
any exist without a source, — that is, that nothing can happen 
without a cause, — she will begin at the tree. 

"Matter or substance has been divided into organic and inor- 
ganic ; an organic substance is that which belongs to animal or 
vegetable life. The inorganic would include what remains, as 
metals and earths. A plant is an organized being originating 
from a seed, and generally nourished only by inorganic sub- 
stances. Animal bodies, on the contrary, are principally nour- 
ished by organic substances. Ellen will quote from a very 
excellent article on Plants in Appleton's Encyclopaedia : 

'Plant (Lat. planta), an organized being originating from a germ 
and nourished solely by inorganic substances. Although the differ- 
ences between plants and animals in their higher forms are sufficiently 
obvious, with the lower ones it is difficult in many cases to decide 
whether an object ought to be classed as a plant or as an animal. 



l8o ELLEN OR THE 

Motion, which was formerly regarded as belonging only to animals, is 
now known to be a characteristic of some vegetable forms, and chem- 
ical constituents at one time supposed to belong only to plants have 
been .found also in animals. Thus far it is not known that any animal 
can subsist directly upon the elements furnished by the mineral king- 
dom, while the plant is able to live upon air, water, and other inorganic 
materials, and assimilate them, converting them into organized struc- 
ture, which may serve as food for animals ; in doing this the plant 
takes in and decomposes carbonic acid, fixes carbon, and gives off 
oxygen, a function not known to belong to animals. Most animals 
have a stomach or internal cavity into which organized food is 
received ; plants have no special receptacle for their food correspond- 
ing to a stomach. 

' Development of the Lower Plants. — The plant in its most rudi- 
mentary form consists of a semi-fluid substance, protoplasm, sur- 
rounded by a cell wall — a minute sac or bag of protoplasm ; in 
chemical constitution the cell wall is a carbo-hydrate, known as cel- 
lulose, its composition being carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen ; the con- 
tents of the cell belong to the proteine compounds, and, besides the 
elements of cellulose, contain nitrogen. An illustration of these simple 
forms of plant life is found in protococcus, which when present in large 
numbers appears as a green or even red scum, or in toi-icla, the yeast 
plant. These plants, though so simple in structure and so insignificant 
in size, some of them not over i- 10,000 of an inch in diameter, while 
others are as large as 1-3500 of an inch, perform the two principal 
functions of larger and more complex plants : they grow and reproduce 
themselves. Being surrounded by a liquid (in the case of protococcus 
by rain water, which contains carbonic acid, ammonia, and other mat- 
ters in solution), the little plant absorbs its nourishment through the 
cell wall ; it increases in size by assimilating its food ; small as it is, it 
can decompose carbonic acid, appropriating the carbon and setting 



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WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 83 

free the oxygen, and combining this with the other elements form cel- 
lulose and protoplasm, which incorporated with that already in the 
plant increases its bulk to the full size proper to the species. When 
growth is attained, reproduction commences ; the protoplasm sub- 
divides into two, four, eight, or more masses, around each of which a 
cell wall is formed, and finally the segments separate, each portion 
growing to the full size and repeating the operation of subdivision. 
Thus in a simple microscopic cell there is nutrition, growth, and repro- 
duction. A step higher in organization are found plants of numerous 
simple cells placed end to end, as seen in some minute algae and 
fungi, in which a similar subdivision of the cells takes place, accom- 
panied by a growth of the parts produced by division and elongating 
the chain of cells. In some of these microscopic algse the cooperation 
of two distinct cells is necessary to reproduction. A phenomenon 
called conjugation may be observed in some, such as zygnema, a very 
slender silk-like alga which forms a green scum of fine threads on pools 
in spring ; a microscope of moderate power will show these plants to 
consist of elongated transparent cells placed end to end, within which 
the protoplasm is distinctly visible. The cells of two adjacent threads 
maybe seen to bulge out toward one another; at length the projecting 
portions of the cells meet and finally touch, the cell wall between them 
is broken, and the contents of one cell pass over into the other, and 
mingling with the protoplasm of that cell form a spore, or reproductive 
body analagous to a seed, which being liberated starts life anew. 
From this simple union of two different cells to form a reproductive 
body, it is but a step for the plant to have special cells devoted to 
reproduction, while the other cells of the plant are engaged in promot- 
ing its growth. The largest plant is made up of minute cells, each of 
which at some stage of its existence has passed through a life 
similar to that described for the protococcus ; it has been formed by 
the division of other cells, and has grown to its full size. 



1 84 ELLEN OR THE 

' Germination and Growth from the Seed. — A general view of plant 
life, as manifested in the higher forms of vegetation, may be best given 
by following a plant from the beginning. The first rudiment of the 
plant is to be found in the ovule or the forming seed. The ovule (the 
nature and structure of which will be explained further on) is the small 
pulpy body within the ovary which is to become the seed vessel, and 
which is itself to become the seed ; a cell within the ovule is the begin- 
ning of the plant ; this elongates by subdivision, and also increases in 
width until, taking the common bean as an example, two thick lobes 
are formed, connected by a short stem ; when these parts are perfectly 
formed all growth ceases, and the seed is ripe. If we soak a ripe bean 
in warm water until the skin can be removed, the parts may be seen, 
two lobes and a small stem uniting them, which in the bean is bent ; 
this part of the seed (and in the bean it is the whole of it besides the 
seed coats) is the embryo. This is formed in every seed, though often 
much less distinctly than in the bean, and sometimes with only one 
lobe instead of two. The seed is to all appearance perfectly lifeless, 
dry, often very hard, and even bony, and it may remain dormant for 
years ; some have been known to germinate after being kept in the 
ordinary way for half a century, and even after several hundred years 
when deeply buried in the soil ; but the stories told of seeds taken 
from mummies several thousand years old and germinating have no 
foundation in fact. The essential conditions to germination are mois- 
ture, air, and heat ; these must be present in proper proportions, and 
are best applied through the medium of the soil, though germina- 
tion will take place when these conditions are supplied in other ways. 
The first step is the absorption of moisture, which must be present in 
sufficient quantity, but for land plants there must not be an excess or 
the seed may rot ; besides this, too much water excludes the air, with- 
out the oxygen of which germination is not possible. It was formerly 
supposed that darkness was essential, but experiments have shown that 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 85 

germination is not influenced by the presence or absence of light. The 
temperature required varies with different seeds ; while some will ger- 
minate at a few degrees above the melting point of ice, others, seeds of 
tropical plants, require ioo° F. or more for their most successful ger- 
mination ; there is a degree of heat most favorable for each kind of 
seeds, though they will start at a much lower and will endure a much 
higher temperature ; thus, while Indian corn will germinate at 48 ° and 
tolerate a heat of 115 , it is found that the process goes on most rap- 
idly at the temperature of 93 °. The time required for germination, 
even when the conditions are most favorable, varies greatly, and is of 
course greatly modified by temperature and other influences ; some 
seeds sprout in 12 hours, those of most of the agricultural grains in four 
or five days, others require as many weeks, and there are several kinds 
which will lie dormant one and even two years. The time required by 
some seeds depends upon their treatment ; if sown as soon as ripe 
they germinate the following spring, but if not sown until spring they 
remain dormant until the year following. The growth of the young 
plant, which the embryo may be considered as soon as germination 
takes place, may be followed in the bean. The embryo when liberated 
from the seed coats consists of two very thick and fleshy leaves, a very 
short stem to which they are attached, and between them some rudi- 
mentary leaves, or a bud. The two fleshy leaves, commonly known as 
the seed leaves, are the cotyledons, the short stem is the radicle, and 
the small bud the plumule ; the plumule is not at first visible in all 
germinating seeds, but it soon manifests itself. The first step in 
growth is the elongation of the radicle, the cells of which multiply and 
grow by a similar process to that by which it grew in forming the seed ; 
if in the soil, one end pushes downward and the other makes its way 
upward, carrying with it the cotyledons, which it lifts above the surface 
of the soil. This growth is nourished by the material within the fleshy 
cotyledons ; in the forming and ripening of the seed the cotyledons 



1 86 ELLEN OR THE 

were stored to repletion with starch and other proximate principles ; 
these are now rendered soluble and carried to the part where growth is 
going on, and are there assimilated by the growing cells, where some 
go to build up cell walls, and others to form cell contents. These 
changes take place through the influence of diastase and other albu- 
minoids, which act the part of ferments, converting starch from its 
fixed and insoluble condition into dextrine and sugar, forms which 
being soluble can be transferred. These changes are accompanied by 
the absorption of oxygen, the oxidation of some of the elements of the 
seed, and the escape of carbonic acid, and both hydrogen and nitrogen 
are also given off ; and these changes are attended by the development 
of heat, which when germination takes place in a large quantity of 
seed, as in malting, becomes strikingly manifest. Before the store of 
nutriment in the cotyledons is exhausted preparation is made for draw- 
ing subsistence from the soil; roots, organs especially designed for 
absorbing liquids, make their appearance on the radicle, and through 
them water, holding various substances in solution, is conveyed to 
the interior of the plant, where this crude sap, as it is called, 
is converted into compounds capable of nourishing the plant. Soon 
after the cotyledons of the bean appear above the soil the plumule 
increases in size ; it is lifted up upon a stem, its rudimentary leaves 
enlarge and expand and disclose another bud, which in turn is raised 
by the growth of a stem and develops its leaves, and so the growth is 
continued. In the bean the early leaves are in pairs, but soon only one 
appears at a place on the stem, and the plant elongates by a successive 
addition of leaves, each separated from the one below it by a portion 
of stem ; the cotyledons, though they become green like the other 
leaves, and no doubt to some extent perform the functions of foliage, 
after a while fall away. In examining other seeds and watching their 
germination, while the same general plan will be found to run through 
all, some marked deviations from the structure as seen in the bean will 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 87 

be noted. In the bean the seed leaves, having been diverted from 
their ordinary use and made the receptacles of nourishment for the 
young plant, are much distorted ; a condition carried still further in 
the pea, in which they do not appear above ground ; and in the acorn, 
horse chestnut, and others, they are so gorged that but little resem- 
blance is to be traced between them and ordinary leaves ; on the other 
hand, the cotyledons will often be found thin, and though differing in 
shape from the leaves produced later, they remain long after germina- 
tion and are equally useful with the others. In many seeds the nour- 
ishment for the growth of the young plant is placed outside of the 
embryo, and not within it, as in the bean • this material is termed 
albumen, and may be copious or scanty in proportion to the size of the 
embryo. The embryo is placed in the centre of the albumen, or at one 
end, or may be coiled in a more or less complete ring around the out- 
side of the albumen. The embryo differs greatly in degree of devel- 
opment ; in some cases the cotyledons are large and the plumule is 
distinctly visible, while in other seeds it is very rudimentary, the little 
stem or radicle having merely a notch at one end, the rude lobes thus 
formed foreshadowing the cotyledons. The name albumen is used to 
designate the nutritious matter placed for its nourishment outside of 
the embryo, without reference to its chemical composition ; it was so 
called by the early botanists, who saw some analogy between its office 
and that of the white of an egg, and though endosperm, perisperm, 
and other distinctive names have been proposed, albumen is still used 
by the highest authorities. The character of the albumen varies 
greatly ; it may be mucilaginous, fleshy, floury, oily, horny, etc. The 
presence or absence of albumen in seeds (albuminous and exalbumin- 
ous) is an important character in classifying plants. A still more impor- 
tant one is found in the number of cotyledons, which in our example, 
the bean, is two, that number being found in the majority of the plants 
in northern climates, which are dicotyledonous. Plants in which but 



1 88 ELLEN OR THE 

one cotyledon is present (monocotyledonous) are throughout their 
whole structure very different from the others, and this difference in 
the embryo, accompanied by other characters, serves for the separation 
of flowering plants into two great classes. In the conifers and some 
other plants the cotyledons often appear to be more than two, but 
these polycotyledonous embryos are regarded as dicotyledonous wiih 
the cotyledons subdivided. To return to the bean. Even in the very 
rudimentary state to which we have traced it, the bean just "up," as in 
the common expression, has all the organs of vegetation that it needs, 
all in kind that it ever will have, and indeed all that any plant has. 
Root, stem, and leaf, being all that are concerned in the growth of the 
plant, its increase in size, are termed the organs of vegetation ; the two 
last named already existed in the seed, while the root was formed as 
soon as germination was fairly accomplished. The future growth of 
the plant consists in the repetition of these organs, and though in dif- 
ferent plants these are wonderfully varied in form and size, and are 
sometimes turned aside from their proper functions, they may all be 
traced to these three elementary organs. * * * In all plants the 
leaf or leaves are produced upon the stem at a point called the node ; 
the space between one node and the next is the internode ; the plant 
then, no matter how long it may grow, presents a succession of leaf- 
bearing nodes separated by internodes — in fact, is merely a repetition 
of the embryo, which was a very short stem or internode with a pair of 
leaves. In the plumule the undeveloped leaves were upon very short 
undeveloped internodes, and as growth went on these internodes 
elongated, and grew from nourishment afforded by the cotyledons at 
first, and afterward from that primarily taken up by the root. The 
plumule is a very simple bud, but whether of this character or more 
highly organized, a bud (leaf bud) always consists of undeveloped 
leaves upon very short internodes ; as the bean plant elongates there is 
still found at its upper end a simple bud, or what gardeners call the 
"growing point." ' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 89 

"From all which it is evident that the bodies of plants, (and 
the same is true of animals), are automata, turned out in the 
workshops of nature, as furniture or fabrics are in those of 
man. And as the workshops of man could never exist except 
for the mind of man, so those of nature could never exist 
except for the mind of God. Without mind everything must 
decay, until soon all things would be without form and void. 
But the old Pine knows that there are no workshops on earth, 
for the production of those things which man designs, which man 
did not make. And so, the same laws prevailing everywhere in 
the kingdom of mind and matter, there are none for the pro- 
duction of those things which God designs, which He does not 
make. And thus the universe is furnished with these things 
made in all these different shops of nature, as the houses of 
man are furnished with those things made in the shops of man. 
Nor, as Ellen has said, is it possible to suppose that such 
creation would have happened except that there were uses for 
it; and these uses of necessity belong to the realm of spirit. 
For there can be no use except for intelligence." 

"And death, Ellen?" 

"Has only to do with the body," she said; "for the life of 
the body is but a complicated piece of machinery in operation, 
which, like all machinery in the material universe, is wearing 
out more or less rapidly, and at last must cease to act. It may, 
too, at any moment, by accident, be injured or destroyed. 
The stoppage of its action is the catastrophe which we call 
death. The old Pine will see that it should have, and can have, 
no great significance. For the body perishes, not because the 
soul leaves it, but the soul leaves the body, because, when the 



190 ELLEN OR THE 

machinery of life ceases to operate, the body is no longer 
tenable or usable by the soul." 

"But where does the spirit go, Ellen?" I asked. 

"Ellen will answer," she said: "in that wonderful passage of 
St. Paul, to be found in I. Corinthians, Chap. 15 : 

' ' Awake to righteousness, and sin not ; for some have not the knowl- 
edge of God : I speak this to your shame. 

'But some man will say, How are the dead raised up? and with what 
body do they come? 

' Thou fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die : 

' And that which thou sowest, thou sowest not that body that shall be, 
but bare grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other grain : 

'But God giveth it a body as it hath pleased him, and to every seed 
his own body. 

1 All flesh is not the same flesh : but there is one kind of "flesh of men, 
another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds. 

' There are also celestial bodies, and bodies terrestrial : but the glory 
of the celestial is one, and the glory of the terrestial is another. 

' There is one glory of the sun, and another glory of the moon, and 
another glory of the stars : for one star differeth from another star in 
glory. 

'So also is the resurrection of the dead. It is sown in corruption, it 
is raised in incorruption : 

'It is sown in dishonour, it is raised in glory: it is sown in weak- 
ness, it is raised in power : 

' It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. There is a 
natural body, and there is a spiritual body. 

' And so it is written, The first man Adam was made a living soul ; 
the last Adam was made a quickening spirit. 

' Howbeit that was not first which is spiritual, but that which is nat- 
ural ; and afterward that which is spiritual. 



•WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 191 

'The first man is of the earth, earthy : the second man is the Lord 
from heaven. 

' As is the earthy, such are they also that are earthy : and as is the 
heavenly, such are they also that are heavenly. 

1 And as we have borne the image of the earthy, we shall also bear 
the image of the heavenly. 

' Now this I say, brethren, that flesh and blood cannot inherit the 
kingdom of God ; neither doth corruption inherit incorruption. 

' Behold, I shew you a mystery ; We shall not all sleep, but we shall 
all be changed. 

' In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trump : for the 
trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we 
shall be changed. 

' For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must 
put on immortality.' " 

She arose as she finished, and stood beneath my heavy limbs. 

"Behold the tiny shadows, in the bushes and under the 
rocks, are already hastening to their homes, after their day's 
work," she said. " Ellen must go, for the great forest will soon 
be covered with the darkness, and surely the old Pine wouldn't 
want Ellen to stumble and fall over the big logs." 

"No," I said; "it is time for Ellen to go to escape the 
darkness." 

"But how magnificent," she said, "must be the night, seen 
from this mountain. The old Pine ought to be a great astron- 
omer, with such a chance to study the skies." 

"And hasn't Ellen," I asked, "an equal chance from the 
piazza of her home? " 

" No," she said, " not an equal chance ; but Ellen has watched 



192 ELLEN OR THE . "" 

the pretty stars when they rose and when they set, and she used 
to wonder at the great distances which they seemed to travel. 
And then she found out that they didn't travel at all, but that 
this absurd earth of ours is always rotating upon its axis from 
west to east, thus making the stars seem to be moving from 
east to west. Just such a funny world, isn't it, old Pine, to be 
going several different ways at the same time. Turning upon 
its axis one way, obliquely, whilst hurrying in its course around 
the sun. But Ellen and the old Pine are having a great ride 
both ways with no expense, and can see the scenery of the 
stars with their ever-changing shores." 

Slowly she crossed the rocks to the border of the forest, 
then, glancing over her shoulder, bade me good-bye, and dis- 
appeared among the constantly increasing height of the thickly 
growing spruces. 




The Silent Cliff. 
For the strength of the hills we thank Thee, our God. our Father's God. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 195 



XIX. 



t( r I ''HE old Pine is awfully dull," she said, "not to see or 
* hear Ellen ! " 

''Why, my darling," I answered, "where did you come from, 
or how did you get here?" 

"Came from home ; for Ellen is never very long from home. 
Came up through the forest, and the old Pine didn't see Ellen 
or hear her." 

"The old Pine was very thoughtless," I said, "and dozing; 
but he is thoughtless no longer. What is it that Ellen wants?" 

"Wanted to talk," she said; "for she has been reading and 
thinking. The old Pine asked her if there were evidences of 
immortality, and she told him that she thought they were most 
numerous, lying all about, for those who look for them, but the 
promise of finding is only to those who seek. Nor, when she 
thinks of the possibilities of existence, does she suppose that 
most of these evidences have been discovered by man, but 
rather that those which have not been discovered are many 
more than those which have. For this, as Ellen thinks, is 
true of all things. It belongs to the nature of the infinite. 
But the infinite is the immortal. 

"There is the Socratic doctrine that knowledge is recollec- 
tion ; which, if correct, would be a demonstration of the pre- 
vious existence of the soul." 

"But," I said, "it always seemed to the old Pine that if ; the 



196 ELLEN OR THE 

soul has existed previously, we ought to have ful recollection 
of such existence." 

"And the old Pine, as Ellen thinks, is mistaken in supposing 
that would necessarily follow. For certainly there is no more 
reason why it should be true than that we should always remem- 
ber our dreams, and this certainly we do not do. Sometimes 
we remember them more or less distinctly, but many times not 
at all, and, as Ellen understands, somnambulists rarely if ever 
remember the things which they do, though often these are very 
remarkable. Why, then, should not the previous existence of 
.the soul be forgotten, assuming that it had previous existence? 
This would or would not be remembered as it was thought best 
by the Creator, to carry out His plan of creation. But it was 
not this doctrine — that knowledge is recollection — which Ellen 
wanted to discuss to-day. Perhaps some other time the old 
Pine and Ellen will consider this, but to-day she wanted to dis- 
cuss that great principle of opposites, which Ellen has referred 
to before, so evident everywhere in creation. 

"It was, then, to have the old Pine's assistance in examining 
the methods by which existence takes place that Ellen came 
up to-day. For she has found out that the old Pine makes no 
pretensions to knowledge ; knows that he does not know, and 
therefore is in a condition to learn. For it is from ignorance 
that knowledge comes ; for not those who know or think they 
know seek for knowledge, but those who know that they do 
not know, and are anxious to learn." 

"Then," I said, "Ellen should find a good seat, for these are 
among the greatest of all questions that she would introduce, 
and it must require some time to consider them." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE igj 

"Very well," she said; "here is a beautiful seat upon this 
bank, where the wild moss grows, with the partridge berries 
nestling amongst it." 

She sat down as she spoke, partly reclining, and looking up at 
me with her great, blue eyes, now overcast with thought, con- 
tinued : 

"Ellen thinks this, — that the law of opposites is one of the 
universal laws of nature, everywhere present. For it is one 
of the methods by which things are made. Surely the old Pine 
didn't suppose that things were made without method, did he? 
or that the method was something very different from what it is ? 
It would be impossible, so Ellen thinks, that things should be 
made without method. The methods are what they are, and 
this is one of them. They are what they are ; and certain ones 
at least, this great system of opposites or antitheses included, 
are very evident to us. 

"Thus we have the salt and the not salt; and the two, as the 
old Pine will readily see, include everything. The old Pine will 
see, too, that but for this principle of antitheses variety would be 
impossible, and hence existence as we know it impossible. For, 
if there was no difference between the salt and the not salt, 
either all things must be salt or there would not be any salt. 
But the same would be true of all other things ; and so if there 
were no antitheses each thing would be eliminated, or else all 
the others would be eliminated, so that without this principle 
there could be but one thing in the universe. Ellen can hardly 
imagine anything more dreadful. It follows that the universe 
as we know it, or any universe that we would want to know, 
would be impossible without this principle of differences. But 



I98 ELLEN OR THE 

the principle of differences includes that of opposites. For 
the not salt is the opposite of salt ; and the same is true of all 
things. The antithesis is complete ; and the old Pine will see, 
if he analyzes the conditions : 

"First, that a thing always starts from its opposite; thus the 
salt begins at the not salt, for it could have no beginning if it 
didn't. It also originates in the not salt, for, as we know, salt 
is composed of an acid and an alkali, and these are the not salt. 
And what is true of salt in this respect, is true of all com- 
pounds ; and thus we see that many things are composed of 
their opposites, and that all things take place because of their 
opposites. As Ellen has said before, if more than one thing 
exists, opposites must exist; but one thing might exist without 
the principle of opposites. And thus God existed, self-existent 
and eternal, Who has created all things ; and with the creation 
of matter was introduced this great principle of opposites. 

"Second, that a thing increases in a quality by the addition 
of the thing which makes that quality. And thus, too, it is 
diminished by the withdrawal of the thing which makes the 
quality. Thus, a thing salted becomes more salt by the addition 
of salt, and less salt by the subtraction of salt. Nor is it possible 
that either result should take place in any other manner. 

"Third, the presence or absence of one thing alone — salt — 
produces this antithesis." 

"But is Ellen sure that the character of opposites is always 
alike?" I asked. 

"The old Pine and Ellen must examine," she replied. 
"Ellen isn't sure of anything. The antithesis or principle of 
differences which Ellen has examined would include every par- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 1 99 

ticular thing in the universe — every substance. All such 
antitheses certainly would be subject to the same laws, and 
hence operate in the same manner. But are all things sub- 
stances? 

"Take distance ; a thing is far or near. There is no question 
about the opposites. Behold yonder mountain, the furthest 
high peak to the north beyond the lake. We say it is a long 
way off. Will the old Pine tell Ellen in what this long way 
consists?" 

"Why," I said, "the old Pine thinks it must consist in dis- 
tance." 

"And how will we measure distance?" 

"By miles, or by feet," I answered. 

"Very well," she said; "then the mountain is a long way off 
because of a large number of feet between it and us?" 

"Yes," I said. 

"But," she said, "supposing Ellen should approach the 
mountain until nearly all of this distance was left behind her ; 
the mountain then would be but a short way off from her, 
because of the short distance or small number of feet remain- 
ing, or because of an absence of distance. And thus we have 
the antithesis of far and near, and the far becomes near because 
of the absence of distance — the subtraction of a certain number 
of feet. In this case it would appear that a thing is near or far 
because of one thing only — distance. As that is increased the 
object considered becomes far ; as it is decreased it becomes 
near. And thus the whole antithesis of near and far is 
explained by one thing — distance. There would be no 
necessity for two things, and indeed it would not be pos- 



200 ELLEN OR THE 

sible here to have an antithesis because of two things ; for 
instance, the antithesis of near and far because of distance and 
time, or distance and pleasure, or distance and apples or any 
other substance, except so far as it represents distance. A 
thing is near or far only because of the one thing, distance ; 
and distance can be increased or decreased only by adding or 
subtracting that in which distance consists. And now will the 
old Pine tell Ellen what distance is ? " 

"Why," I said, "it is the space between two points." 

" And does it consist of butternuts, or carriages, or any other 
objects?" she asked. 

" No," I answered. " These may occupy the space, but space 
does not necessarily consist in them ; for, after they are gone 
the space will remain." 

"Then," she said, "space is something that exists of itself; 
independent of any particular thing. " 

14 So it would appear." 

"And is it the same with justice?" she asked, "or beauty, or 
goodness, or truth?" 

"The old Pine doesn't know," I said. 

"But Ellen thinks he does know," she replied; "for how 
would it be possible that there should be such a thing as justice 
if it did not have an independent existence ; or beauty, or good- 
ness, or truth? Certainly each of these exists." 

"And how does Ellen think that they exist?" I asked. 

"Ellen thinks this," she answered, " that all material things 
are composed of parts or in pieces which admit of being 
aggregated or separated. In this respect they are like manufac- 
tured articles, as tacks, or bolts, or screws. And effects are ex- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 201 

actly proportionate to the combination of these parts; they are 
massed. Thus butternuts are increased from one butternut to 
a bushel of butternuts by the addition of butternuts, and popu- 
lation is increased from one person to many persons by the ad- 
dition of persons ; nor is it possible that either should be in- 
creased in any other way. Thus light is increased, and sound, 
and odor. Nor does Ellen think that it is any different with 
beauty, or with space, or with' any of those qualities which 
we call abstract, but that all exist in their own proper essence, 
and are increased or diminished by the addition or subtraction 
of this essence. And the effects are in proportion to the 
amounts; in union there is strength. It's an awfully funny » 
way, for it is very difficult to see in what effects consist, or why 
this subtle thing in which they consist should admit of addition 
and subtraction, like a sum in arithmetic. But beyond all ques- 
tion this is the way that material things are made ; and, as 
Ellen thinks, they are all made this way. It is the working- 
principle of creation. 

''And this further Ellen sees, that this play of opposites takes 
place because of this principle of the aggregation or diminu- 
tion of things, and the resulting difference in effects. And thus 
we have a thing in very great force or in very little force, passing, 
or capable of passing, from one extreme to the other, always by 
the same route, as a spy-glass is extended or closed. In both 
these cases the workings may be very gradual or very sudden, 
but it can only be between limits, and always by the same 
route, each mile-post of which must be passed before the 
next is reached ; that is, the greater aggregation of anything 
can take place only through the less. And always the one 



202 ELLEN OR THE 

opposite exists because of the other. Ever the)' may ap- 
proach or recede from each other ; the}' wax and they wane, 
but never can the one become the other. More subtle than the 
essence in which they consist is that line beyond which they 
cannot pass without a change of nature, for a thing can never, 
be its opposite ; the odd number can never be the even, or 
the even the odd ; the older can never be the younger, or the 
younger the older; the just can never be the unjust, or the 
unjust the just; and so of all opposites, they cannot inter- 
change qualities. 

"But still another principle becomes visible, as Ellen thinks, 
,from this system of opposites — that of motion; for only as 
things move is the system possible. For the salt can become 
more salt only by the addition of salt, or less salt only b^ its 
removal. And this is true of all antitheses. Indeed, change 
would be impossible without motion ; for change is movement, 
and movement is change. 

"And this again follows from things being effective in pro- 
portion to their amounts, that the great majority of things 
are of medium character, and all vary ; for they partake 
of different substances or qualities in amounts more or 
less limited, so that we would not often meet with the 
extremes, the very sweet or the very sour, the very handsome 
or the very homely, the very good or the very bad ; but rather 
the intermediate conditions. And this we know is general in 
nature, so that the perfect, which combines all excellences, is. 
in anything, very rare. And so also is the wholly imperfect. 

" And therefore this thing distance the old Pine must con- 
sider in the abstract as something that exists in itself, and is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 203 

increased or decreased, just as all other things are, by the aggre- 
gation or separation of that from which it is made. And hence, 
in the workings of the antitheses, he is not to consider that 
Ellen moves, or the mountain moves, or that anything moves or 
is moved except that which makes distance, which, as Ellen 
thinks, is extension ; and. this is increased or diminished by the 
addition or subtraction of itself, and thus, in the usual manner, 
-the antithesis of far and near is formed. 

•'We have, then, in this antithesis the quality distance, 
affected by motion, either increased or decreased, with the 
result of the near and the far, the near existing because of the 
far and the far because of the near. 

"Take pleasure and pain. They are not a bit good neigh- 
bors; for pleasure flees on the approach of pain, and pain on 
the approach of pleasure. Precisely, too, as one approaches the 
other recedes. But this is noticeable, that of each there may be 
accumulation or diminution, and that it is possible for them to 
balance their forces against each other. Thus, those of pleasure 
may be so great that those of pain make but little or no impres- 
sion ; or the opposite may be true. This is not like an antith- 
esis caused by a single substance. And therefore Ellen judges 
that with pleasure and pain there are two essences and not one, 
and that of these the true or elementary antitheses are pleasure 
i\nd not pleasure, and pain and not pain. There is, too, a com- 
pound antithesis, for the two essences of pleasure and pain are 
antagonistic to each other ; so that if both are present, the one 
always more or less detracts from the other." 

"And does the principle of opposites extend to the domain 
of mind? " I asked. 



204 ELLEN OR THE 

"Ellen thinks that it does," she answered, " and thus gener- 
ally she thinks that in the different kingdoms or states of exist- 
ence laws are similar. But as all things which happen with us 
take place material!}', so she thinks that the material manifes- 
tation of moral qualities is governed by material laws; that is 
they take place materially. 

"Take justice and injustice. The conditions of opposites 
hold equally true. Thus, Ellen has three apples and she gives 
one to the old Pine and one to yonder little birch and one to the 
beech. We will suppose this to be a just division; but, if so, 
were she to give two to the beech and one to the old Pine, or 
make any other division, it would be unjust ; at least it would be 
less just. For the old Pine must see that if all divisions were 
equally just, the principle of justice would have no significance. 
Its significance comes, and must come, because of the fact that 
all divisions are not equally just; and that the unequally just 
pass and of necessity pass through even' shade that lies between 
the just and the unjust, thus producing the antithesis of justice 
and injustice. And here again, apparently, we have the result 
obtained because of the abstract principle of justice being 
increased or diminished, so as to produce the antithesis of 
the just and the unjust. 

''The same would appear to be true in all antitheses; that 
they admit of intermediate conditions between each other, and 
come of some absolute quality which is increased until it 
exists in the greatest abundance, or decreased till it does not 
exist at all." 

"But," I said, "is it not true that any particular division or 
divisions might take place, and always take place, and such 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 205 

divisions might be of such kind as we call just? And if they 
always took place when divisions were made, justice would rule 
even-where, and there would be no such thing as injustice. 
Just as at the equator there is no such thing as cold weather, 
but always it is warm, and if not too warm, agreeable, a thing 
Ave can easily imagine might happen. And so there might 
always be light, as, at the poles, the light of the sun is con- 
tinuous for many months. Nor does the old Pine see why this 
might not be equally pleasant." 

"Ellen thinks it is true," she said, "that things may exist 
independent of their opposites, but none the less true that their 
opposites exist. As she has said before, but for this prin- 
ciple of differences there could be only one thing in the 
universe. Certainly the significance of justice is its dis- 
tinction from injustice, together with its distinction from all 
other things. It seems to Ellen that the fact that there is or 
can be such a thing as justice implies with equal force the fact 
that there might be such a thing as injustice. 

"Take light. It comes from the darkness, with which it is 
variously mingled ; and thus we pass from the not light, or 
dark, to the light. Nor can the one ever be the other. 

"And so with justice. The division that results from justice 
might take place always, and should take place always, and 
does take place always, when things are perfect. But in 
some way it is very certain that with us it varies. There is 
a lack of justice, and often so great a lack that rank injus- 
tice exists. And apparently the antithesis is complete between 
justice and injustice, and is of similar character with those 
antitheses which take place with what we know as substances, 



206 ELLEN OR THE 

as the salt and the not salt, or with distance, as the far 
and near. 

"Justice is a moral quality by which one is predisposed tc> 
act for the general good. The nature of that quality which 
thus influences action, Ellen doesn't know, but it acts unequally, 
and, therefore, like everything else in nature of which we have 
knowledge, it would appear to be composed of parts ; so that it 
is aggregated or lessened, and these conditions supply the 
working parts of an antithesis between the just and the unjust. 
These are precisely the same conditions which we found to 
exist with all substances. And, therefore, is Ellen disposed to 
think that in some way justice with man is controlled by materia' 
conditions, and, like other material things, is formed in parts, 
and that the just and not just gradually approach and recede 
from each other, like the near and far. 

"Ellen isn't considering now what justice accomplishes, or 
how; but of what and how it is composed. For certainly the 
old Pine doesn't think that accomplishment can come without 
cause. But cause must consist in something, and of something. 
Then justice, which accomplishes so much, must be something, 
and be composed of something. Ellen thinks, as she has said., 
that all things in this material universe take place materially. 
that is, are composed of matter. Nor does she think that jus- 
tice is any exception ; or beauty, or truth. Nor does she think 
that it is any more remarkable that they should exits materially 
than that an orange or a peach or a plum should. For it is no 
more true that w T e couldn't make this principle of justice than 
that we couldn't make an orange, or a peach, or a plum. Nor 
is it any easier for us to explain why an orange should yield 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 209 

flavor, or a sweet pea either odor or beauty, than why this beau- 
tiful thing justice should produce prosperity and happiness. 
Ellen knows no limits to the possibilities of being. She recog- 
nizes limits to our present powers of perception, but none 
whatever to existence." 

"Then Ellen would make all these things material?" I said. 

" She would so far as they exist here and we are able to per- 
ceive them," she answered; "or so far as they affect material 
conditions." 

"Then Ellen does not believe in justice existing as an eternal 
principle? " 

"Certainly she does," she answered. "Ellen believes that 
all things which exist, exist as eternal principles. How else 
could they exist? But in all cases the things we have to do 
with are reproductions ; and reproductions are always entirely 
separate from the things by which they are reproduced. 

"Thus Ellen sees a pumpkin and Ellen likes pumpkins 
pretty well, for the}' make such nice pies. And they are so 
awfully yellow when they are ripe, and look so contented 
with themselves. Well, Ellen sees a pumpkin in the field, look- 
ing out upon the view; — at the mountains, those circling near- 
by or those extending more distantly, covered with spruces, or in 
their highest forms rock-crowned ; and at the stream that finds 
its course far below. She shuts her eyes and doesn't see the 
pumpkin, but the idea of it remains the same. She comes again 
and the pumpkin is gone, or she leaves it and still the idea 
exists, depending not upon the material thing, for this must 
soon perish. The divine idea after which things are modeled 
is immortal ; but whether or not the idea which Ellen has is 



2 TO ELLEN OR THE 

immortal, it is absolutely distinct from the thing of which it is 
the idea, and its continued existence does not at all depend 
upon this thing. 

"And this also we know, and Ellen has told the old Pine, 
and the old Pine mustn't forget, — for although Ellen may 
sometimes repeat she cannot promise to repeat, — nothing can 
be made without first the idea from which to model it. For 
creation — any creation — is impossible without design. But 
design, as Ellen thinks, is an arrangement of ideas, and 
its accomplishment the transference or copying of ideas into 
other conditions, and in the cases that we are now considering, 
into material conditions. The principle of justice, then, is in 
the idea, and this, as Ellen believes, is eternal in the mind of 
God. But Ellen thinks that the representation of justice which 
we have to do with is material." 

" It is, then, a copy from the eternal principle of justice," 
I said. 

"So Ellen thinks," she answered; "and therefore it is of 
every degree of excellence, just as all copies are. The old 
Pine, then, mustn't confuse the different conditions in which 
things exist ; for those things which exist in the mind and the 
material things modeled after them are always absolutely dis- 
tinct, just as much so as the picture is distinct from the scene 
it represents. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 211 



XX 



(( FALLEN will illustrate still further so as to make this very 
*— ' clear; for it would be impossible to make it too clear 
if any one wanted to get a correct idea of the nature of things, 
or the manner in which they are made. 

" Ellen will suppose that she is going- to build a house. She 
would suppose that the old Pine was going to build a house, 
and so make her illustration more agreeable, only she doesn't 
know what kind of a house the old Pine would want to build. 
But Ellen can plan a house for herself almost whilst yonder little 
bird is winking at her. Ellen's house, her castle in Spain, 
covers lots of ground, for land is cheap in the country, and 
Ellen wants lots of room ; and she wants it easy to get at and 
easy to get out of, so that if the house should ever burn, every- 
body could escape. Besides, it's a good deal easier to step 
from the piazza upon the ground floor, than it is to go upstairs. 
So Ellen is going to have lots of room on the ground floor — a 
great long parlor and a living room and a bed-room, and an 
awfully wide hall with a pretty staircase in it, for there will 
have to be an upstairs part so as to have rooms for company 
and a library. And then Ellen is going to have a piazza just 
eight feet wide, on two sides, with a rounded corner, and the 
house will be two stories with plenty of height and an ell run- 
ning back for the dining room, kitchen and wood-shed; and 
there will be four beautiful chimneys on the main part; for 



2 12 ELLEN OR THE 

Ellen is very fond of fire-places and wants one in each of the 
chambers as well as in all the rooms on the ground floor. 
Doesn't the old Pine think that Ellen is getting an awfully nice 
house?" 

"Why, yes," I said, "she is certainly building a very fine 
house. The old Pine thinks it will be by far the most imposing 
and commodious house in all the country round." 

"There isn't any question about it," she said. "Between 
Montpelier and Woodstock there is not another like it, or that 
can at all compare with it. But all this beautiful house is in 
Ellen's mind — built without mortar and without stone, without 
brick and without boards ; of what it is built God only knows. 
And yet, as Ellen thinks, it must be built of something, 
although it were but the fabric of a dream. 

"But, if Ellen chose, she could order the workmen, and all 
the material of which this mythical house was built would be 
brought together in its real essence, and slowly but surely, and 
even perhaps rapidly, this ideal house of such shadowy sub- 
stance that it can be torn to pieces and reconstructed, enlarged 
or altered in every conceivable manner, moved anywhere or 
everywhere on this globe, or from it to the furthest fixed star 
with the rapidity of thought, would become to us real, its 
essence, superficially, at least, known, and of such substantial 
character that it could with much difficulty be moved. And 
yet this last house would be impossible without the first one. 
Eternal ages might go by and no house would ever be con- 
structed unless through intelligence the ideal house was formed 
for a model, and then by the direction of intelligence the 
second one built. And what is true of the house is true of 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 21$ 

everything that was ever made by man. Does the old Pine 



i fc> 



suppose that there is any other law of construction in all this 
infinite universe? But this isn't what Ellen wished to illustrate, 
for it is unnecessary. Hopelessly an idiot must he be who 
supposes that a pin could not be made without intelligence, but 
that a man could. But Ellen wants to impress upon the old 
Pine this fact, that the archetype, at least of every material 
thing, is completely disconnected from the thing of which it is 
the archetype. The archetype is an idea conceived in mind — 
good for a model, and, so far as Ellen knows, good for nothing 
else. It wouldn't be a bit good to live in. But the old Pine 
will see three things: first, that nothing can be constructed 
without mind, for mind is the master workman that does the 
whole ; second, that mind cannot work without a model ; 
and third, that the model is entirely distinct from the -thing 
modeled. Whence comes the model, and how is it con- 
structed?" 

"It comes from mind, does it not, Ellen?" 

"Ellen's model came from mind, and was in Ellen's mind, 
but it didn't originate in Ellen's mind. It was after the models 
made by God, of which there are an infinite number in the uni- 
verse, and we are so made that we are able to get the advan- 
tage of these and use them. Of the original models there may 
be millions of copies, any of which would answer our purposes. 
But from whatever source the model is derived, the house can- 
only be built after the model existing in the mind of the builder. 
But our minds are not only able to use the models which exist 
in the universe; but they are also able to reconstruct them. 
That is, they can take parts of each, and so construct a new 



2 14 ELLEN OR THE 

one. And therefore, if necessary, mind can furnish and will 
furnish a model. 

"Mind, then, with its concomitant machinery, acts both to 
furnish the model, if necessary, and to provide for construction. 
Who made the machinery ? There is but one architect, — mind ; 
this we know. And therefore mind made the machinery by 
which mind operates in material conditions. And that machin 
ery, or rather a part of it, is the brain; and the rest of it, so 
Ellen thinks, is the body. Together they constitute the neces- 
sary machinery, including that part which keeps the rest in 
order. For it is always necessary that machinery should be 
kept in order. It has to be lubricated, if the old Pine knows 
what that means. Thus the machinery of an engine, or a 
factory, or a press has to be oiled. And so, as Ellen thinks, 
the machinery of the eye and brain has to be kept in order to 
reproduce models. For the brain copies the ideas introduced 
by sensation and the mind arranges them into models, just as 
by means of these models and through the use of the body 
we manufacture material things. But one has to precede the 
other, and therefore, as Ellen has said before, the beginnings 
of all things are in the intellect. And therefore it would be 
as reasonable for one to begin at the top brick of a chimney 
to build a block of stores, as to undertake to make any mate- 
rial thing by beginning with the material conditions. And 
therefore is the principle of evolution as taught by scientists 
impossible, the Bible statement of special creation being of 
necessity true. 

"God's workmen, then, we would appear to be, here upon 
earth, placed here to cultivate the vineyards — to carry on the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 21 5 

farms, if Eilen may be permitted so to speak. But how is 
this model, so important to all the work to be performed, 
constructed? This opens a great subject, too great to be 
more than touched upon by Ellen now; for there isn't 
time. In this machinery for the construction of models, sensa- 
tion plays a most important part. A printing press makes the 
impression of a picture, but it couldn't do it without the plate 
to make it from. Neither could this press of our body make a 
model, but for another model to make it from. The great 
laboratory of existence supplies the model, and this, through 
sensation, is introduced to the soul, and in some manner 
impressed upon the brain. With the soul, too, there is a cer- 
tain latitude of arrangement ; how, Ellen knows not, but there 
is no provision for invention. It follows that the universal 
principle of creation is reproduction. From like comes like, 
but, in these cases, comes unlike, because of the great differ- 
ence of material. But always the construction follows the 
plan, though the original plan may be repeatedly altered. 

"And thus it is evident that not justice only, but all ideas in 
the mind of man are a copy. For it would be as impossible. 
as Ellen thinks, for man to create ideas as it would for him to 
create matter. He has the power of arrangement — can repro- 
duce. And in this power of arrangement he may bring forth 
original productions, possibly such as have never before been 
formed ; but he cannot invent a single idea. Thus equally 
man, the mind of man, or the machinery through which mind 
operates in man, may rearrange matter, may create a picture or 
a telephone, or perhaps something which has never before been 
created or invented, but he cannot either create or destroy a 



2l6 ELLEN OR THE 

particle of matter. Ellen thinks there is no possible question 
as to either of these propositions." 

"Then Ellen thinks both matter and ideas are supplied to 



man 



? " 



"Yes," she said, "the one comes within the reach of his 
hands; the other of his soul, through the eyes and other media 
of sensation, and these media are as much more wonderful than 
the hands as is the material which they use." 

" And does Ellen think that the eyes have anything to do 
with material?" 

" They reproduce a picture painted upon the retina. Did the 
old Pine ever know a picture of a kind that he could analyze 
which was not made with material? Can he imagine that there 
is anything which is not made with some kind of material? 
Ellen cannot. She can readily believe that the material is of 
infinitely fine texture, both fine and evanescent, but material 
there must be. Let us study those pictures of which we have 
knowledge. A painting is produced by paint placed upon a 
canvas. Every part of this painting — and it may be very 
beautiful — is made out of essentially gross conditions of 
matter. Ellen thinks it is very marvelous how a painter can 
arrange the grains of pigment so that they will mimic the 
splendors of a summer sky or the beauties of a changing land- 
scape. Of all the marvels of this marvelous creation there are 
few, if any, greater or more inexplicable than this. And yet 
it seems to be a comparatively easy achievement, and it is 
accomplished by a certain distribution of this thing which we 
call matter. 

"More wonderful still are the pictures taken by the camera. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN. OLD TINE 21/ 

Here a great artist — light — disarranges the minute particles of 
silver upon the plate, and in the fraction of a moment a thou- 
sand millions of different objects are produced. 

"More wonderful than all is the picture formed upon the 
retina of the eye. It isn't only the picture itself, which may 
include everything within a vast extent of vision, that is so mar- 
vellous, but also the fact that this infinite extent and infinite 
variety of scene, every proportion and every feature of which 
is perfect, is reflected in a space so small. The first two of 
these pictures we know to be formed of matter, and the last 
we also know to be, because of the universality of nature's laws. 

"Well, the eye brings in to the soul the material of the 
models, the material of ideas, the hands gather the grosser 
substances, and the work of life begins. It is impossible for 
it to begin before, as impossible as it is for workmen to work 
before there is material to work with — to make brick without 
straw. Of what use are workmen without material? They can 
just stand about idle; that's all they can do. And that's all 
the mind can do until sensations have gathered in mental con- 
cepts, and the growing brain is able to retain, and the soul to 
use them in the manufacture of thought. And therefore we are 
born into the world without ideas and have to live quite a while 
before we get many." 

"And these eternal ideas?" 

"Are created by God," she said, "from whom all things 
come; for they arc the source of all reproduction, and all 
things, as Ellen has shown, which we have acquaintance with, 
or are able to accomplish, are the result of reproduction. 

" Included, then, among the eternal principles, and one of the 



21:8 ELLEN OR THE 

brightest among them, is justice. Unquestionably its purpose- 
is one of usefulness. As Ellen believes, there is nothing that 
exists except for use. Why else should anything exist? So 
justice exists, and its use, as Ellen thinks, is in the arrangement 
of things, so placing them that they may best contribute to the 
general good. For surely in such a marvellous universe there 
must be to everything its proper arrangement; but how could 
we know what such arrangement is, so as to carry out our 
part of it, unless aided by some guiding principle? And, as 
Ellen thinks, justice is such a principle, and acts as a hidden 
force in the great universe, distributing and arranging things in 
a somewhat similar manner as gravitation, also a hidden force, 
acts to hold things in their places. 

"Such is creation, Mr. Pine ; so Ellen thinks. Ellen is refer- 
ring again now to the material creation — that in which the old 
Pine and Ellen live, and of which they are a part. Nor is a 
strawberry any more a part of it than justice, only it is a differ- 
ent part and not nearly so important a part. For justice is a 
part of existence ; a part of the old Pine's existence, and Ellen's 
— that part whose silent influence brings peace and plenty 
everywhere. It's as beautiful as a blossom, so Ellen thinks; 
and she loves it. Surely the old Pine didn't think that things 
were made every kind of way, did he, without order and with- 
out design? Ellen doesn't think that there could be any crea- 
tion like that. It would be an awfully funny one if there was. 
But they are all made in the way that Ellen has been telling 
the old Pine — not a thing neglected. Truth, and honesty, and 
love, and hope, and justice, arranged for, just the same as pine- 
apples, and muskmelons, and turnips, and cabbages. And, as 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2 2 1 

Ellen thinks, they all take place materially under the same law. 
And she doesn't see how we could get along without all of these 
things — at least how we would want to — and especially the 
love, and the hope, and the justice, and all that kind of thing, 
for it is these which make life desirable and attractive. Ellen 
wouldn't be visiting the old Pine, or anybody else, if it wasn't 
for these things. The house, this house of ours, this great 
creation, wouldn't be half furnished. But as it is, it's supplied 
in every part, not only with all the conveniences, but with all 
the luxuries of existence. And these are scattered everywhere, 
free as light, and air, and water. 

" Returning now to the principle of opposites, Ellen thinks 
that antitheses are an essential part of existence, and resolve 
themselves into the fact that a thing cannot exist where it is 
not, and must exist where it is.. Surely the old Pine didn't 
think that it would be possible for things to be, without any 
significance to tljeir being?" 

"No," I said; "their being must mean something." 

"Of course it must," she said; "and antitheses mean the 
creation as it exists ; nor is it possible for us to imagine how it 
could be made in any other way. 

"A thing, then, is always as it is, because of its own 
properties ; nor is it possible that it should be so because 
of any other thing. Thus, salt is salt because of salt; the 
hard is hard because of the hard. This is the imme- 
diate cause, though there might be a distant and very 
different cause of its hardness. Thus with pleasure. Pleasure 
is pleasure because of pleasure, and more distantly it may 
be pleasure because of something that is being done. And 



222 ELLEN OR THE 

always, as Ellen thinks, there is the immediate cause and 
a more distant cause. Thus, water is water because of water; 
it is also water because of the mixture of oxygen and hydrogem 
And in this manner there might be a series of causes. Yet 
always it will be true that, as a first cause, a thing is as it is 
because of itself. 

"And thus the beautiful is beautiful because of beauty. 
Ellen knows of no other reason why it should be beautiful." 

"And what is beauty, Ellen?" I asked. 

"That quality whi^ch makes the beautiful," she said, "just as 
salt is that quality which makes salt. But the quality which 
makes salt may be itself compounded, and so that quality or 
that thing which makes beauty may itself be composed of 
many things. 

"An .orange is an orange because of the orange; it is also 
an orange because of its skin, pulp, and seeds. But its skin, 
pulp, and seeds are the orange. And so the oxygen and the 
hydrogen are the water. And always this is true and explains 
why a thing is as it is, apparently for several reasons, or 
because of several things. It illustrates the principle that 
things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each 
other. And therefore it is true that a thing is as it is because 
of itself, and also because of those things which make it. 

"And so a thing is beautiful because of beauty, and it 
may be true that it is beautiful because of a million different 
things which, in some way, united, form the beauty, and thu> 
are the cause of it, whilst the beauty is the cause of the 
beautiful." 

"But," I said, "the old Pine would like to know the cause of 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 223 

the beautiful expressed in form, or in color ; that is, what par- 
ticular form or color represents the beautiful?" 

"And Ellen does not think that there is any such," she 
said, "but that beauty is entirely distinct from form or color, 
a thing of itself. And therefore any form or color may repre- 
sent the beautful, but that always there must be a certain har- 
mony of conditions. 

"In the Phacdo of Plato, Socrates says: 

• And if a person says to me that the bloom of color, or form, or any- 
thing else of that sort is a source of beauty, I leave all that, which is 
only confusing to me, and simply and singly, and perhaps foolishly, 
hold and am assured in my own mind that nothing makes a thing beau- 
tiful but the presence and participation of beauty in whatever way or 
manner obtained ; for as to the manner I am uncertain, but 1 stoutly 
contend that by beauty all beautiful things become beautiful. That 
appears to me to be the only safe answer that I can give, either to 
myself or to any other, and to that I cling, in the persuasion that I 
shall never be overthrown, and that I may safely answer to myself or. 
any other, that by beauty beautiful things become beautiful.' " 

"Then," I said, "there must be some reason in the nature of 
things why a thing is beautiful, or, if Ellen chooses, why there 
is such a thing as beauty which makes the beautiful." 

"And Ellen thinks," she answered, "that the beautiful or 
beauty connects with the fitness of things, and that a thing 
is beautiful because it is useful — that is, because it is good; 
for the useful and the good in these senses are the same. For, 
as Ellen thinks, the universe was made for use ; but use, as 
she has said before, is for intelligence. Then to intelligence a ' 
thing is beautiful as it is fitted for the uses of intelligence. Hut, 



224 ELLEN OR THE 

like all things else, the beaut}* of the material thing is composed 
of parts. A beautiful tree is composed of beautiful branches 
and a beautiful trunk and beautiful leaves. And the trunk is 
composed in part of beautiful bark, and the leaves are ribbed 
in beauty and have beautiful notches and texture. Thus may 
we dissect the beautiful and find that it is composed of beauty. 
Like all things else it may be aggregated, but only by the 
accumulation of itself. There is no other way. And in each 
particular location a thing is or is not beautiful, as it is adapted 
to the place it may fill. In this view beauty is not a fixed and 
changeless thing consisting of form and color, but a principle 
in ethics whose virtue can be discerned only by intelligence. 
And thus it is that abstract beauty is as natural as concrete; 
the beauty of holiness as that of a tree. Awfully pretty 
things trees are. Ellen loves them all, especially the old 
Pine." 

The old Pine noticed that all the trees in the neighborhood 
had been listening to her discourse, and were now nodding in 
admiration. 

"But in all cases," she continued, --the beauty* consists in 
the parts being adapted to the purposes for which they were 
made. Therefore the beautiful is the useful, and the useful is 
the good. So that the old Pine can see that in the ultimate 
analysis the Good and the Beautiful are the same." 

"But in what consists the immortal?" I asked. 

"In these principles," she said. "The beauty of form 
perishes, but the principle of its use, as Ellen thinks, is immor- 
tal, as is God, as is the soul, as are all ideas. For ideas, as has 
been proved, are entirely separate from the material thing. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 225 

But in this knowledge we have a demonstration of distinction 
between spirit and matter, between the soul and the body. 

"And now we are prepared to examine the most significant 
of all antitheses. First, that of sleeping and waking. Ellen 
does not now undertake to say what it is to be asleep or what 
it is to be awake ; but this we know, that from the one comes 
the other; nor would it be possible for either of them to exist 
except that the other previously existed, for it would be impos- 
sible for one to awake unless he was asleep, and equally impos- 
sible for one to fall asleep unless he was awake. Sleeping and 
waking, then, are opposites, and are engendered from each 
other. Will the old Pine tell Ellen what is the opposite of life?" 

" Clearly," I answered, "it is death." 

"Most certainly it is," she said; "nor can there be any to 
dispute or doubt it. Will the old Pine now tell Ellen from 
what death comes?" 

"It comes from life," I answered, "as all can see." 

"Yes," she said, " by the law of opposites it takes place 
because of its opposite, and plainly, too, all can see that it 
comes from life. And now let the old Pine answer Ellen 
whence comes life?" 

"Clearly," I said, "there is but one possible answer. It 
comes from death." 

"Yes, indeed," she said, "it comes from death. And will 
the old Pine tell Ellen what is the significance of this?" 

"That the soul is immortal," I said, "death affecting it no 
more than sleep affects us. For as the day arises from the 
darkness, or as awakening follows sleep, so life is born of 
death." 



2 26 ELLEN OR THE 

" And therefore," she continued, " do we exclaim : ' death, 
where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory? The sting 
of death is sin.' And this last Ellen thinks is also very evident, 
for we behold how sleep is harassed by bodily ills, and can 
well believe that the ills of the soul will disturb the serenity 
of death. All of us would avoid sickness if we could, because 
of the distresses that it brings to the body. Then how 
much more should we avoid those actions which disturb 
and harass the future life. God alone is just, nor will it be pos- 
sible for any who live in His universe to avoid the justice of 
His laws. But Ellen did not come to preach to the old Pine. 
She came to proclaim the gospel of life ; that nothing perishes 
in this great universe, life and death being as equal parts of 
existence as wakefulness and sleep are of life. 

"And now Ellen must leave the bank whereon the wild moss 
grows; she must leave the pretty birches and each timid 
bush. And she must again bid the old Pine good-bye ; for 
the ceaseless course of time calls her back to the cottage on the 
Mil, to the cottage that is now so far, and, as Ellen hopes, will 
soon be so near ; and away from the ok*. Pine, who is now so 
near and who will then be so far." 

"And what is time, Ellen?" I asked. 

"It is the period of never-ending existence," she said ; " ari 
existence of which we are all a part. It is but another name 
for eternity; for they are interchangeable. Time is eternity, 
and eternity time. 

"And the old Pine and Ellen are a part of its great flow, 
traveling, as Ellen thinks, on an endless journey, whose duties 
ire constantly chanenne, and whose interests are forever varied. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



227 



And at times, the conditions arc easy and pleasant; but, as 
Ellen thinks, in the greater existence we are largely weavers of 
those conditions just as we are here. For, as by perseverance 
and thrift we improve our earthly conditions, so, as Ellen 
thinks, by attention to our moral duties we improve our con- 
ditions hereafter. And this is as reason teaches, for material 
conditions can only benefit us here, but the goods of our moral 
natures we carry with us, when from death we enter into the 
new Life." 



22$ ELLEN OR THE 



XXI. 



A NOTHER year had turned its changing circle before Ellen 
■** again visited our mountain. It was in June, when every 
tree and bush and shrub had donned its new dress. She burst 
forth from among the leaves as a beautiful vision, radiant in 
health and sparkling with sunshine. 

"The beautiful Ellen," I said, "coming to show the myriads 
of new leaves how much more beautiful she is than they all ; 
and by the magic wand of that beauty instantaneously gathering 
every one of them under her sway." 

" Ellen's compliments to the old Pine," she replied ; " and she 
wants to know how he has been through the cold winter, that 
kept Ellen so much of her time within her home, although 
nearly every day she walked or rode in its icy air. And she- 
could see the old Pine way off up here on the mountain. 
Some time Ellen's coming up with her snow shoes to see 
how the old Pine keeps house in winter, and if he's got a nice 
warm place for her ; and to see how the valleys look when 
winter has spread over them its white mantle. Ellen notices 
that the old Pine persists in calling her ■ beautiful, when she 
told him once that she didn't think it a compliment to be called 
the beautiful." 

"Yes," I said, "but the old Pine never more than half 
believed it. All women like to be called beautiful. Ellen is a 
woman, and therefore she must like to be called beautiful." 



K : -??3S3»saaa 




In the Warren Woods. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 23 1 

"The old Pine would better believe what Ellen says,'' she 
answered, "if he wants to win her love.'' 

"The old Pine well knows,'' I replied, "that Ellen is a million 
times better than the beautiful, — that she is the GOOD. And he 
loves Ellen and adores her not because of her beauty, but 
because of her goodness. He knows, too, that he will not get 
her love, unless he deserves it." 

"But Ellen doesn't know it half as well," she said, "for he 
has Ellen's love, and she isn't a bit sure about his deserving it. 
Ellen thinks he is a great flatterer, and supposes that when 
Gertrude and Edith come up to see him, he will flatter them as 
much as he does Ellen. But she didn't come up to-day to talk 
of flattery. She came to tell how she has been studying all the 
winter into many things, and wondering if the old Pine would 
be interested in her story of them.'' 

"And Ellen knows the old Pine will be interested," I 
answered. 

"Then what shall Ellen talk about?" 

"The old Pine thought," I said, "that when Ellen came again 
she would tell him about mathematics.'' 

"The old Pine means Ellen shall be busy. What would he 
have her tell about mathematics?" 

"All about them," I replied. 

"And will the old Pine be awfully nice," she said, "and give 
Ellen some wild strawberries? " 

"Yes," 1 answered, "Ellen shall have all the wild strawberries 
she can eat." 

"Served up on a great big beautiful leaf?" 

"Yes," I replied, "for yonder pretty hobble bush, who has 



232 ELLEN OR THE 

been watching Ellen every moment since she came, I am sure 
will furnish the leaf." The hobble bush as I spoke extended 
one of its finest oval leaves. 

"Thank you," she said; "Ellen will be delighted to be served 
from such a wonderful leaf." 

She threw her hat upon the rocks, then seated herself upon 
them. 

" Ellen supposes the old Pine will ask an awful lot of ques- 
tions. All Ellen can do is to tell what she knows as well as 
she can. Mathematics are coeval with the universe as wc 
know it. Indeed they must have been pre-existent in its 
design. For, as Ellen has repeatedly told the old Pine, nothing 
can exist without previous design. But this design was in the 
mind of God, and, therefore, mathematics — all mathematical 
principles, must originate with Him. 

"And now," she continued, "Ellen wants to know if the old 
Pine was going to build a great, big tower, where he would 
begin? " 

"At the foundation," I said; "of course with a tower this 
would be absolutely necessary." 

" Scarcely more so than with mathematics," she said. " Ellen 
hardly knows that it would be any more so. But if the 
foundation is well laid, the tower will rise rapidly and safely; 
And so if the foundation is well laid, mathematics will be easy 
and pleasant. So Ellen will begin with arithmetic, which may 
be considered the foundation of all mathematics. 

" Arithmetic has to do with quantity ; that is, it exists 
because of quantity ; but quantity includes everything in the 
universe. The function, then, of arithmetic is eminently a 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 233 

practical one, its mission being to supply information, in regard 
to the constitution or condition of the universe. And here 
Ellen wants to impress the old Pine with the principle that 
what is founded entirely for practical purposes shouldn't be 
concealed or made difficult by abstractions. 

"Arithmetic, then, is a science devised to furnish mankind 
with certain information ; but, like every business, it must have 
tools to work with. These tools are numbers. For quantity, 
that of which all things are composed, is a thing that 
can be increased or diminished, and the information wanted, 
constantly wanted, and which arithmetic is called upon to 
supply, concerns the amount of this quantity that may be con- 
tained in any particular thing or place. It always concerns 
this thing quantity, though the quantity may be of the kind 
we call abstract ; that is, it may have to do directly with mate- 
rial things of that kind which, because of their bulk and the 
nature of the matter that composes them, we know intimately, 
or it may have to do with that other kind which, because of the 
nature of the matter composing them, we only know remotely, 
as space or time." 

"This is the kind of quantity which is called continuous, is it 
not, Ellen? " 

"Yes," she said, "but Ellen doesn't know that it's any more 
continuous than water or air, or a million things else which 
help to make up this universe. Well, the tools used in this 
business are numbers; and what are numbers? What are 
words? Words are symbols for ideas ; and so numbers are and 
may be expressed in words, as one, two, three; but it is found 
more convenient, when writing, to express them by symbols, 



234 ELLEN OR THE 

as I, 2, 3. Then numbers are symbols for ideas. And the 
ideas, as Ellen has said, connect with amount; how much is 
contained in the thing considered, whether this thing is much 
or little, and whatever its nature? This is the information that 
the science of arithmetic is designed to give. 

"It is a very simple problem, and therefore the system 
adopted for its accomplishment is simple, necessarily correlat- 
ing the operations to be performed. Unity for a measure, and 
for the reckoning a series of numbers of indefinite extension, 
but formed out of ten symbols, including the unit of measure ; 
the question being how many times this unit of measure is con- 
tained in the quantity considered. And this means how many 
times there is room for it to be placed in this quantity, not 
occupying the same space more than once. Ellen doesn't 
think that there could be any proposition simpler than this, but 
it embodies the whole science of arithmetic ; for multiplication 
is generally only another name for addition, and division for 
subtraction ; so that constantly and always the problem connects 
with unity and the number of times it is contained, whether 
added or subtracted, in the quantity considered." 

"But, Ellen," I asked, "are there not other differences in the 
character of numbers besides that which Ellen has pointed out 
between the unit of measure and other numbers?" 

"Not of any great significance," she replied, "excepting, 
perhaps, that between whole numbers and fractions." 

"And what are whole numbers?" I asked. 

"Those which contain a certain precise number of units." 

"And what are fractions?" 

"They are parts of a whole, and necessary, first, because 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 235 

things are composed of parts and capable of division ; and second, 
because there is frequently too much or too little room for any 
exact number of times the unit of measure. This excess or 
shortage is expressed by a fraction, and must be, if expressed 
at all. A unit, then, is a thing; and a fraction is a part of a 
thing. Then there are as many fractions as a thing may be 
divided into parts; and this means an inconceivable number, 
an awfully big number." 

"A number without limit?" I asked. 

''Ellen wouldn't say that," she replied. "It is practically 
without limit. But theoretically Ellen thinks it is limited ; for 
all things exist through design, and design is limit." 

" So Ellen thinks that the sands of the seashore are limited? ,r 

"Certainly they are; and their limit is easily reached by us 
in imagination, for it is simply a question of numbers. But the 
limits of fractions are beyond our imagination, and therefore of 
a kind which we do not understand. Possibly they are limited 
as a circle is, by a want of limit, or continued existence in the 
same manner. And this is as Ellen thinks, for all nature 
abounds in these circulatory methods. Mr. Locke says: 'The 
divisibility in infinitum of any finite extension involves us 
whether we grant or deny it, in consequences impossible to be 
explicated or made in our apprehensions consistent.' " 

"Apparently," I said, "there is an infinity of numbers smaller 
than the unit, as well as an infinity greater." 

"Yes," she answered, "so far as we are able to perceive, the 
possibilities of division are as great as those of multiplication. 
It's a long road in either direction, and passes out of our sight. 

"In its nature a number is an abstraction. It does not and 



236 ELLEN OR THE 

cannot partake of any particular thing, but always is intended 
to convey to the mind certain information ; and this informa- 
tion is distinct from the thing with which it is connected. 
That is, a number is symbolical of amount or reduplica- 
tion, and each number of a particular amount, the mind 
being so made as to be able not only to represent ideas 
by symbols, but also, as would appear, to be assisted in its 
work by so doing. It has been forcibly claimed and disputed 
that the mind is not able to think at all without the aid of sym- 
bols, through the use of words and numbers. Ellen thinks it 
does think without these — by ideas alone; and that the pur- 
pose of symbols is not ideas, but the communication of ideas. 
Well, the numbers are symbols, representing ideas." 

''And what are these numbers composed of, Ellen?" I asked. 

"They are composed of ink, or lead, or charcoal, or chalk, 
or any other material thing which will make them. What the 
ideas they represent are composed of, as Ellen has said, she 
does not know, only that they are copies, reduplications, and 
having to do with material conditions she supposes are com- 
posed of matter. 

"But it was arithmetic that Ellen undertook to talk of 
to-day, in connection with mathematics, and the old Pine 
mustn't lead her away on abstractions. A part of the nomen- 
clature used in arithmetic is poorly chosen, and misleading. 
The addition and subtraction are all right, and easily under- 
stood. The multiplication is reasonably perspicuous, though 
the common statement that it is another form of addition is 
only true of whole numbers greater than unity. Four times 4 
means that 4 is taken 4 times, thus, 44-4+4+4=16; but 1 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 237 

times 1 does not mean that 1 is taken twice. If it did, then 
would 1 times 1 be 2. And so in fractions, \X\ does not 
mean that ~ is taken twice, but that it is taken ^ times, and ^ of 
J- is J. In this case multiplication becomes division. But the 
philosophy of it is clear; for ^ taken 1 times is -, and taken \ 
times should be \ that, or \. 

"It is the use of the word 'division' that Ellen would criti- 
cise ; for the word has a very fixed signification which does 
not accord at all with its use in mathematics. To divide is to 
sever into parts, to cause to separate, to sunder, distribute, etc. ; 
and these represent the only meanings given to it in Webster's 
Dictionary. Now, it is not in the nature of numbers to per- 
form any of these operations. As we have seen, the only 
thing they undertake to do is to tell how many times one 
thing is contained in another. And this they do in the 
• most peaceful manner possible, nothing being further from their 
intention than to divide or sunder anything. Saws, knives, and 
that kind of thing divide things, but numbers do not at all, and 
cannot. They will tell how many times a thing might be 
divided by the proper tool for dividing it, but here their func- 
tion ends. In arithmetic some other and appropriate word, 
such as containment, should have been used instead of division, 
and, as Ellen thinks, ought still to be. For misleading phrase- 
ology leads to erroneous methods, and that which in its nature 
is perfectly clear, becomes muddled and difficult to under- 
stand. And the scholar learns his rule with difficulty, but for- 
gets it with ease ; whereas, if good sense was used in the 
construction of the science, he would learn it with ease and 
forget it with difficulty. Always with all sciences or with all- 



238 ELLEN OR THE 

learning it is important to so arrange the study that the pre- 
vious knowledge of the scholar will assist him to learn it. And 
certainly a science should not be so arranged that it shall run 
counter to this previous knowledge. This is a matter of quite a 
good deal of importance ; for the best is none too good in any- 
thing. And in such a study as this, which millions of scholars 
are engaged in, unnecessary difficulties mean in the aggregate 
a great waste of both effort and time. And Ellen thinks 
that some bright mathematician ought to get up an arithmetic 
which would avoid all such absurdities. Novelty without object 
is not desirable, for it overthrows old landmarks and makes 
things more difficult. But improvement is always in order ; nor 
perhaps, is it reasonable to suppose that perfection has been 
reached in anything. The question should be, how many times 
is 2 contained in 4, or, how many times are two parts con- 
tained in four parts, or two bushels in four bushels, or two feet • 
in four yards? 

"Our third example will be with 1. The schoolmen say 
1 divided by 2 is \. Ellen would say ~ is contained in 1 
twice. Take J-. The schoolmen say | divided by J— 2. 
Ellen would say | is contained in ~ twice. • Let the question be 
how many times is \ contained in 6. We readily see and can 
demonstrate that it is 12 times. But to say that 6 divided by 
1- is 12 is confusing; for we are accustomed to suppose that a 
thing is made smaller by division, but here apparently it is 
made larger. And so if we divide \ by \ in arithmetic the 
answer is 2, and the rule requires an extraordinary arrangement 
of figures to bring such an answer, so that both rule and 
answer are confusing. For here apparently, after performing 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 239 

a division, a thing instead of being made smaller, is larger. 
That J should be contained in ^ twice, is both perspicuous and 
consistent,, but that \ divided by \ or anything else should 
become 2, that is, should become larger than it was before the 
division, is neither." 

"And how would Ellen avoid all this?" I asked. 

" She would rearrange this part of arithmetic," she answered. 
" There is only a little of it, and it can be easily done. Thus, 
she would call it by some appropriate name, as Containment, 
or Computation, the question always being how many times is 
one thing contained in another. A single rule would answer 
all purposes. Thus: 

" Write containing number last, and find how many times the 
first number is contained in the second=Answer. 

" Or, for fractions, write containing number last and reduce 
to common denominator. Find how many times the first numer- 
ator is contained in the second numerator=Answer. Thus : 

"EXAMPLE i. — How many times is 4 contained in 12? 
Written, compute 4 in 12, or 4^12 ? = 3 Answer. Here Ellen 
uses a new sign for containment, to be read, is contained in; 
otherwise, processes are the same as now used in division. 

"EXAMPLE 2. — How many times is 12 contained in 4? 
Written, compute 12 in 4, or 12^4?=^=! Answer. 

"Example 3. — How many times is 2 contained inj-? Writ- 
ten, compute 2 in 1 or 2wl?=|wlz=4-wl ? — I- or .25 Answer. 

" Example 4. — How many times is \ contained in 2 ? Writ- 
ten, compute \ in 2, or \^2 ?=lwl — l^i- = 4 Answer. 

"Example 5. — How many times is \ contained in J-? Writ- 
ten, compute 1 in \ or l-wL? = i w | ? = 2 Answer. 



240 ELLEN OR THE 

" Example 6. — How many times is \ contained in \ ? Writ- 
ten, compute \ in \, or 1-wl?— |wj ?=! Answer. 

" EXAMPLE 7. — How many times is f contained in f ? Written, 
compute I in f, or |^|-?i= T ^wl£?=:L -=il or 1.1 i-f Answer. 

"Example 8. — How many times is |- contained in |? 
Written, compute | in f, or f ^f ?=i^ w i 9 2 ? =t 9 o or -9 Answer. 

"These include all varieties of examples. In all cases it will 
be seen the problems are written in the order of the question, 
and answer got by finding out, that is, computing the number of 
times the first number is contained in the second ; that is, using 
present phraseology, by dividing the second number by the first 
if in whole numbers; and the second numerator by the first 
numerator if in fractions, these having been first reduced to a 
common denominator. 

"This is clear throughout, avoids inverting fractions, and 
the question why they are inverted, and why after division a 
thing is larger than it was before. 

"Ellen will repeat: Containment is the finding how many 
times one quantity or thing is contained in another. 

"RULE I. — For whole numbers, write the containing number 
last, then compute how many times the first is contained in the 
second. (Divide second by first) =Answer. 

"RULE II. — For fractions, write the containing number last, 
reduce to common denominator, then compute how many 
times the first numerator is contained in the second numerator. 
(Divide second numerator by first numerator) = Answer. 

"Ellen notices that under the present system the different 
arithmetics have different ways of explaining division, each 
striving to surmount the difficulties of the situation." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN' OLD PINE 243 



XXII. 



(( A ND now," I asked, ''will Ellen tell the old Pine the dis- 
-**• tinction between the odd and the even?" 
"Numbers," she answered, "have a character of their own. 
And so, as Ellen thinks, has everything, even the most insignifi- 
cant. Thus, always, a certain space is occupied by a thing whilst 
it exists, and it doesn't make any difference whether the thing is 
at work or at play, awake or asleep. Possibly a thing might be 
of such character that the whole story of its existence could be 
summed up in this one fact, that it occupied space. But it is 
not a bit so with numbers, for they are awfully funny things, 
look some like rabbits, and act some like them, dodging around 
and jumping over things. The nines are so constituted that 
they may be used to prove a sum in addition. Thus, take 

Example I. 

643 s 4 

4201 I 7 
560 ° 2 



5404 w 13 

"Add the figures in each line of numbers, and find how 
many nines are contained in their sums. Reject these nines 
and set down the remainders, 4, 7, 2, in line with the numbers. 
Then take the total, 5404, and see how many nines are 
contained in the sum of its figures. Reject as before and set 



244 ELLEN OR THE 

down the excess 4. If this excess is equal to the excess of 
nines in the sum of the figures 4, 7, 2, the addition is correct. 
Thus the sum of the right hand column is 13, the excess of 
which above 9 is 4. And the excess of nines in the figures in 
the sum total, 5404, is also 4.* 

"And this is always true. Awfully funny things, the 9's 
are — aren't they? and the 3's copy after them. 

"A number is even or odd, as it can or cannot be divided 
by two. But practically this is entirely a question of the 
amount of the quantity considered, whether the unit of measure 
will go in it just one time, or one and something more, until 

* ' This method of proof depends upon a property of the number 9, which, except 
the number 3, belongs to no other digit whatever; namely, " that any number divided 
by 9, will leave the same remainder as the sum of its figures or digits divided by 9; " 
which may be demonstrated in this manner. 

' Demonstration. — Let there be any number proposed, as 4658. This, separated 
into its several parts, becomes 4000+600+50+8. But 4000=4Xiooo=4X (999+1) 
—4X999+4. In like manner 600=6X99+0; and 50=5X9+5. Therefore the 
given number 4658=4X999+4+6X99+6+5X9+5+8=4X999+6X99+5X9+4+6 
+5+8'; and 4658-^9=(4X999+6X99+5X9+4+6+5+8)— 9. But 4X999+6X99 
+5X9 is evidently divisible by 9, without a remainder; therefore if the given num- 
ber 4658 be divided by 9, it will leave the same remainder as ( 4+6+5+8 ) divided by 
9. And the same, it is evident, will hold for any other number whatever. 

' In like manner, the same property may be shown to belong to the number 3; but 
the preference is usually given to the number 9, on account of its being more conven- 
ient in practice. 

' Now, from the demonstration above given, the reason of the rule itself is evident ; 
for the excess of 9's in two or more numbers taken separately, and the excess of 9's 
taken also out of the sum of the former excesses, it is plain that this last excess must 
be equal to the excess of 9's contained in the total sum of all these numbers; all the 
parts taken together being equal to the whole. — This rule was first given by Dr. 
Wallis in his Arithmetic, published in the year 1657.' — Button's Mathematics, p. 7. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 245 

the something more becomes enough for two times. Passing 
the number 2, there must be space enough for it to go twice 
again, before the next even number is reached. This belongs 
to the nature of numbers. It is very simple. There could 
hardly be anything simpler, but from it by the increase or 
diminution of distance the antithesis of the odd and even is 
generated. And the bottom significance of the distinction is, 
first, that two things cannot exist in the same place at the 
same time, for if there is just room for one in a space there 
isn't room for two ; and second, that a thing cannot both be 
and not be, for if it is a fact that one will completely fill a space 
it cannot be a fact that two will. And this is the significance of 
being, — one significance, at least. The old Pine has admitted 
to Ellen that he expected there would be some significance to 
being." 

"Certainly," I said; "that is self-evident." 

" Ellen is afraid that it is not very self-evident to scientists ; 
for they are constantly acting as though there was no signifi- 
cance in things, but that they are able both to be and not be. 
And they are constantly forgetting, apparently never conceived 
that things are as they are, and do what they do, because it is 
their nature. It's what they were made for. Ellen thinks that 
things behave precisely as it was intended they should ; nor 
can she see how it would be possible to have a creation if they 
didn't. Suppose they were made for one thing, and should go 
to work doing another; — where would creation be? There 
couldn't be any, and the old Pine and Ellen would never have 
been upon this mountain, or anywhere else. For it is most 
evident that if we are to have this great, big creation, every- 



246 ELLEN OR THE 

thing must fit into its place and perform its function. And 
therefore things are made so that they not only will, but must. 
And so throughout the universe we see things acting out their 
nature, and the result is that every part of the universe is main- 
tained, and we have a universe. Ellen sees that things are 
wonderfully well made, every one of them. The maple 
trees spread out their gnarled branches and interweave them 
with each other ; and the pines grow up straight, interfering 
with their neighbors the least possible ; and the birches droop 
their branches as though they were held down by the sunshine ; 
and every little flower fills its peculiar niche, reigning complete 
within the radius of its beauty. And the old Pine and Ellen be- 
have themselves according to their natures. The old Pine stays 
up here on this mountain, and Ellen walks all about and has an 
awfully good time. And thus, whichever way we turn, we find 
that there's a place for everything, and that everything is in 
its place, and not only in its place but performing the function 
of its existence. Possibly some few things, or quite a good 
many, could be spared ; but the old Pine must see that nature's 
first and greatest law is order, and that order is attained 
through this principle of everything having its own character 
which in spite of all difficulties it is determined to assert. 
Numbers, then, in these regards, perform the functions they 
were made to perform, and at all times, like everything else, 
act out their natures. 

"And now Ellen will instruct the old Pine in the properties of 
numbers. A factor of a number is any number which is exactly 
contained in that number. Thus, 2 and 4 are factors of 8. 

"A prime number is one which has no other factor except 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 247 

itself and unity; as 1,2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13. Two numbers are said 
to be prime to each other when there is no number except one 
that is exactly contained in both of them, as 9 and 10, or 8 and 
15. When the factors of a number are prime, they are called its 
prime factors. Thus, 2, 3, 5 are the prime factors of 30. Every 
number must exactly contain itself, but will exactly contain no 
other number greater than a half of itself. Take 3 ; there isn't 
any whole number less than a half of it, except one. There is 
only one number besides one less than half of 5 — 2, which is 
not a factor of an odd number. Of 7 there are only 2 and 3, 
which, because of their nature, can't go in 7 an exact number of 
times. And that's the way it is with all the other prime num- 
bers. Because of the nature of numbers they can have no other 
factors but themselves and unity. It's the way they are made, 
and illustrates the universal fact that things are as they are 
made, and that there are lots more things that they can't do 
than those they can. And this suggests that there are a great 
many more things which can't be done than those which can. 

"A composite number is one which will exactly contain 
other numbers besides one and itself; that is, one which has 
other factors besides itself and unity; as 4, 6, 8, 9, 10. 
The factors of a composite number are called its component 
parts. Thus, 2 and 4 are the factors or component parts of 8. 

"Measure is from metiri, mensus, to measure, allied to the 
English mete, which comes from the Anglo-Saxon, and is used 
now chiefly in the phrase 'metes and bounds.' 

" Multiple is derived from the Latin multus, much, many; 
and plicarc, to fold. Multiplication, multiply, multiplier, multi- 
plicand, etc., have the same derivation. 



248 ELLEN OR THE 

" A measure of any number is a number which is contained 
in that number without a remainder ; that is, it is a factor of 
that number. A multiple of any number is a number that will 
contain the given number without a remainder. Thus, 5 is a 
measure of 10; but 10 is a multiple of 5. The smaller number 
is a measure of the larger, and the larger number a multiple of 
the smaller. 

"A common measure or common multiple of several num- 
bers is a number which is a measure or multiple of each of 
them. Thus, 2 is a common measure of 4, 6, and 8; and 12 
a common multiple of 2, 3, 4, and 6. 

"To find the greatest common measure of two given num- 
bers, divide the* greater number by the less; then divide the 
divisor by the remainder, and each consecutive divisor by each 
consecutive remainder, until there is no remainder. The last 
divisor is the greatest common measure. For if the remainder 
is a measure of the divisor, it must be a measure of the dividend, 
as this dividend, less this remainder, is a multiple of the divisor. 
For. the measure of a number is always the measure of any 
multiple of that number, and this because all multiples of a 
number are formed by that number being added to itself a cer- 
tain number of times. Thus, 16 is a multiple of 4, but 16 is 
composed of 4-I-4-I-4 + 4. 

"Tt is true also if a number is a measure of two numbers, as 
12 and 8, it will be a measure of their sum or difference, and 
all of this happens because of the nature of numbers. It would 
be impossible for it to be otherwise ; 4 must go in 4 once, and 
in every 4 once, and then in the space occupied by four 4's=i6 
— it must go 4 times, and so in every multiple of 4 it must go 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 249 

as many times as the multiple contains 4. And the same is 
true of the measure of two numbers. If it goes in one 3 times, 
and in the other twice, it must go in their sum 5 times, and in 
their difference once. 

" Ellen will now illustrate : 

"Example. — Find the greatest common measure of 333 and 
468. 

333)463(1 
o 5 j 



35)333(2 
270 



63)J35(2 
126 



9)63(7 
63 



00 



"Here we divide 468, the greater number, by 333, the 
smaller, and have a remainder of 135; dividing 333 by this we 
have a remainder of 63, and dividing 135 by 63 we get a 
remainder of 9 ; dividing 63 by this there is no remainder, 
therefore 9 is the greatest common divisor of the numbers 333 
and 468, for being a measure of 63 it must be a measure of 
126, which is a multiple of 63; it is also a measure of 135, 
which equals i26-\-g, the sum of two numbers of which 9 is a 
measure. And it is a measure of 270, a multiple of 135, and 
therefore it is a measure of 333, the sum of 270 and 63 ; and 
also of 468, the sum of 333 and 135. 



250 ELLEN OR THE 

"But it is the greatest common measure of these numbers 
because the common measure of 333 and 468 must be the 
measure of their difference, 135, and therefore of 270, a mul- 
tiple of 135, and also of 63, the difference between 270 and 333, 
and of 126, a multiple of 63, and therefore of 9, the difference 
between 135 and 126; but it would be impossible for any num- 
ber greater than 9 to measure 9, and therefore 9 is the greatest 
common measure of 333 and 468. 

"In finding measures the old Pine will want to remember the 
following properties of numbers : A number is measured by 2 
if its unit figure is so measured ; it is measured by 4 if the 
figures representing units and tens are so measured ; it is meas- 
ured by 8 if the figures representing units, tens, and hundreds 
are so measured ; and all for a similar reason that the numbers 
representing amounts greater than those mentioned are mul- 
tiples of the numbers 2, 4, and 8. This depends upon the prin- 
ciple before announced, that if two numbers are multiples of a 
number, their sum will be. Thus in 64, 60 is a multiple of 2 
and if 4 is, then the sum of these numbers must be. Therefore 
always in the case of 2, as all numbers representing tens are a 
multiple of 2, any number must be whose unit figure is a mul- 
tiple of 2. 

"In the case of 4 this is true, for precisely similar reasons, if 
the last two figures are a multiple of 4, for all hundreds are a 
multiple of 4. In the case of 8 all thousands are a multiple of 
8, and if the last three figures are a multiple of 8, for the same 
reasons as before the whole number must be. And for the 
same reason a number is measured by 5 if the last figure is 
measured by 5. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 25 1 

"Ellen has shown how a number is measured by 9 when the 
sum of its figures is so measured; and the same is true of 3. 
For, take any number, as 642 ; this is made up of 64 tens and 
2 — that is, of 64 nines, 64 and 2. But 64 is composed of 6 
nines, 6 and 4. Thus, 642 is composed of 64 nines, 6 nines 
and 6+4+2 ; that is, of nines plus the sum of its figures. 
But 9 is a multiple of 3 ; therefore, 642 and 6+4+2 must 
give the same remainder when divided by 3. 

"If in finding the greatest common measure a factor occurs 
in the divisor which is not a measure of one of the numbers 
given, it can be thrown out, since it cannot be a part of the 
common measure. 

"Thus, in finding the greatest common measure of these 
numbers, 61,251 and 261,024 we have 16,050 as a second 
divisor. This consists of two factors, 321 and 50, (5X5X2), 
and neither 5 nor 2 is a measure of the first given number. 
Therefore, 16,050 may be reduced at once to 321, and thus the 
greatest common measure of the two numbers will be more easily 
found; that is, we divide 61,251 by 321 instead of 16,050. 

"The least common multiple of two or more numbers is the 
least number in which they can be measured. To find the least 
common multiple of two numbers, divide either number by the 
greatest common measure of both, and multiply the other 
number by the quotient ; thus the greatest common measure 
of 40 and 60 is 20, therefore the least common multiple is 40 X 3 
or 60X2 = 120. For the product of 5 X 4X 2 X 3- is a common 
multiple of 40, which equals 5X4X2; and of 60, which equals 
5X4X3. And since 5, 4 and 3 are prime to each other, this 
product must be the least that contains 5X4X3 and 5x4X2. 



252 ELLEN OR THE 

"To find the least common multiple of any numbers, arrange 
in a line and strike out any number which measures any of the 
others ; take any number which measures two or more of these 
and find out how many times it is contained in each, placing 
the quotients and the undivided numbers in the second line ; 
treat this second line as the first, and continue this process 
until a line is obtained of numbers prime to each other. The 
continued product of the divisors and the numbers in the last 
line is the number sought. This depends upon the principle 
just demonstrated, that a common factor of two or more num- 
bers needs to be taken but once in obtaining a common 
multiple. 

"Thus, to find the least common multiple of 26, 28, 25, 21, 
14, 18, 30, we may divide successively by 7, 5, 2, finding 
81,900, the number sought. Thus, 



7 


26 


28 


25 


21 


U 


18 


30 


5 


26 


4 


25 


3 




18 


30 


2 


26 


4 


5 






18 







13 


2 


5 






9 





= 7X5X2X 13x2x5x9 = 81,900 

"In the first line 14 is canceled, as, being a measure of 28, it 
must measure every multiple of 28 ; and in the second line 3 is 
canceled for the same reason, being a measure of 18. 

"The measure of 28 and 21 by 7, is the substitution for 28 
and 21 of 7X4X3, which is a common multiple of them. 

"The measure of 25 and 30 by 5, is the substitution for 25 
and 30 of 5X5X6, a multiple of each; and the measure of 4 
and 18 by 2 a substitution for 4 and 18 of 2X2X9, also a 
multiple of each. 




Mountain Forest in Winter. 
"He giveth snow like wool." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 255 

"When prime numbers are used as divisors the result is the 
least common multiple, and composite numbers would better 
not be used unless they will measure all numbers in a line. 

"The least common multiple of fractions is an awfully funny 
thing. To find a fraction which is the least common multiple 
of several fractions, reduce fractions to a least common denom- 
inator, which will be the denominator of the required fraction; 
and for the numerator find the least common multiple of the 
numerators. Thus : 

"Example i. — What is the least common multiple of J-, 
*' * ? = _2^ _9_ J^ o =; j_ Answer. 

"EXAMPLE 2. — Four boys skate around a circle; the first in 
1^ minutes, the second in 2 minutes, the third in 2\ minutes, 
and the fourth in 3I minutes. If they all start together, how 
long before they will all arrive at starting point together, and 
how many times will each have passed around ? 

"Answer: — 30 minutes. The first, 25 times; second, 15 
times; third, 12 times; fourth, 9 times. 

" Ellen has told the old Pine about fractions, but he must not 
forget there are two kinds — common and decimal. Thus we 
have 1=j 5 -q, and, written as a decimal, .5, and read five- tenths. 
Ellen will now tell the old Pine how these different fractions are 
changed into each other. 

"The decimal is changed to the common fraction by placing 
the number of tens in which it consists under it as a denomi- 
nator; thus .5, read five-tenths, becomes -^\ and .05, five- 
hundredths, becomes t -§q-; .005, five-thousandths, becomes 
5 etc 

10 0' CLL " 



256 ELLEN OR THE 

"The common fraction is changed to the decimal by dividing 
the numerator by the denominator, thus |-=.5 and 1=0.75, or > 

4)3.00(075 
28 

20 

" Ellen will repeat, as she wants the old Pine to be very thor- 
ough in learning his arithmetic ; and this is an important and 
somewhat confusing part. To change a common fraction to a 
•decimal, annex ciphers to the numerator, divide it by the 
denominator, and point off as many figures in the quotient as 
there are ciphers annexed. Another way is to annex the same 
number of ciphers to both the numerator and denominator of 
the fraction ; then divide both terms by the leading figure of 
the denominator and write the numerator as a decimal, pointing 
off as many decimal places (prefixing ciphers, if necessary), as 
there are ciphers in the denominator. Thus, 

_3_ — _3IL0_ — _15.0._ — _15_ or OT r 
200 — 20000 — 10000 — 1000> U1 - Ui > 

" Frequently in dividing as above, there will always be a 
remainder. In such case we may soon have again the same 
remainder, causing the figure or group of figures to occur 
again and again in the quotient. Thus J = .i666+, and 1- = 
.285714285-!-; the repeating figures are distinguished by points 
placed over the first and last, the above results being written 
.16 + and .285714. 

"With a fraction in its lowest terms there must always be a 
remainder whenever the denominator contains any other prime 
factors but 2 and 5. For in adding ciphers we multiply by 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 257 

tens and introduce no other factors than 2 and 5. We can fre- 
quently soon discover what the decimal must be so as to be able 
to set down any number of figures without further division. 
Unless the division terminate, the same figures will recur sooner 
or later, and must recur before we add as many ciphers as 
there are units in the divisor. Thus, if the divisor is 17, we 
can only have the numbers 1 to 16 as remainders; the quotient 
must therefore repeat itself after all these occur, if not before. 
In dividing by 17 all occur thus: 

T V= 1-^17=0.058823529411764705 

" The fraction J must always be greater than the decimal 
•333+ (written .3), however far the latter be extended; but we 
can make the difference as small as we choose; thus -3333333 
does not differ from ^ the ten-millionth part of a unit. So -f^ 
is equal to .416, the dot over the 6 showing that it is to be 
equal to -fj ; but ^ cann °t be exactly expressed as a decimal, 
the trouble being with the notation, not the quantity. 

''Decimals of this continuing kind are called recurring deci- 
mals, and are also distinguished as repeating or circulating 
decimals according as one figure or more than one repeat, and 
as pure or mixed according as the repeating figures stand 
alone or are preceded by non-repeating figures. Thus .148 is 
a pure circulating decimal; .183 is a mixed repeating one. 

"But among the most remarkable performances of numbers 
are those which take place in the changing of a recurring deci- 
mal to a common fraction. Thus we have the recurring deci- 
mal .05729. Multiply this by 100,000 and then by 100, and 
subtract last product from first. Thus : 



258 ELLEN OR THE 

iooooox .05729=5729.729729729 
ioox. 05729= 5.729729729 



99900X .05729 = 5724 
Whence .05 729 = AWo =£h 

"And therefore to change a recurring decimal to a common 
fraction, subtract the decimal figures that do not recur from 
the whole decimal* foe the numerator, and use as many nines as 
there are recurring figures, followed by as many ciphers as 
there are non-recurring figures, for the denominator. 

"In the case of pure recurring decimals there is no subtrac- 
tion, and the denominator consists wholly of nines. Thus, 

o — 3—1 27 — 2.1 — JL " 

•J — 9 — 3 - z / — 99 — 11- 

"And why should these behave this way? " I asked. 

"Because it is their nature to," she answered. "For a divisor 
multiplied by the quotient equals the dividend. But in chang- 
ing from a common fraction to a decimal, we divide the numer- 
ator by the denominator; that is, the numerator is the dividend 
and the denominator the divisor, hence the decimal is the 
quotient. 

"In this case the decimal is .05729, and we learn that 99900 
multiplied by this decimal, .05729, is equal to 5724. Hence 
the common fraction which equals this decimal must be ^^o 
equals ^." 

" But why does Ellen multiply the decimal .05729 by 1 00000 
and 100?" 

"Because by so doing we can eliminate the repeating deci- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 259 

mal and express the result in terms of the original decimal, 
from which by division the value of the decimal is at once 
obtained in terms of a common fraction. 

"Decimals are multiplied the same as integers, and as many 
places are pointed off in the product as there are decimal 
figures in both factors. 

"If only an approximate result is required, the operation 
may be shortened as follows : Let it be required to find the 
product of 324.5607 by 124.35 correct to three decimal places. 
Set the units figure of the multiplier under the third decimal 
place of the multiplicand, and arrange the other figures of the 
multiplier in reverse order. In multiplying, reject all figures 
of the multiplicand which are more to the right than the multi- 
plying figure. It is necessary to carry the nearest larger ten 
for the figures rejected and to write the partial products so that 
the figures shall fall in vertical columns beginning at the right. 

" The method will be made clear by the solution of the 
above example by both methods. 



COMMON ' 


WAY. 


CONTRACTED WAY. 


324.5607 


324.5607 


1-2435 


53-421 


16228 


035 


32456070 


97368 


21 


649 1 2 1 4 


1298242 


8 


1298243 


649 1 2 1 4 




97368 


3245607 




16228 



40359.123 045 40359.123 

" In multiplying by 4 in the contracted way, the first figure 
would be o, but we have really rejected 4x7, or 28; so we 



260 ELLEN OR THE 

take the next larger ten, or 30, and write 3 for the first figure 
of the partial product. It will be seen that by this method 
each figure falls in its proper place ; thus t ^~q times -^ = T l$-^ 
and the 8 should appear as it does in the third decimal place. 
This illustrates how numbers can jump about. For we have 
the same numbers to add in each set of figures, but the first 
line in one set becomes the last in the other, the second from 
the top the second from the bottom, whilst the middle one 
remains the same. 

"Proportion is the equality of ratios. A ratio is the rela- 
tion which one quantity or magnitude has to another of the 
same kind. Thus, ^ expresses the relation of 1 to 2, and f of 
3 to 6. Here are two ratios which are equal, and we have : 
1 is to 2 as 3 to 6 — written 1:21:3:6, or J=|. 

" In proportion the product of the first and last terms, called 
the extremes, is equal to that of the middle terms, called the 
means. Because of this principle many examples can be 
worked by proportion, but often they may be worked more 
easily and quickly by analysis, and Ellen's rule is to perform 
all examples in arithmetic or other mathematics by the sim- 
plest and quickest method. In this she follows the great rule 
adopted by nature in the creation. 

"When four quantities are compared, the proportion is 
called simple ; when the products of numbers are compared, 
the proportion is called Compound. The great utility of the 
operation appears in the solution of problems involving com- 
pound proportion. The following example illustrates simple 
proportion: If 5 apples cost 4 cents, what will 40 apples cost, 
at the same rate? 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 26l 

" In this case 5 apples are to 40 apples as 4 cents to the 
answer. Thus, 5:401:4 : answer = 32. By analysis we first 
find the cost of one apple to be J of 4 cents, or | of a cent. 
Whence 40 apples will cost 40 X-f cent, or 32 cents. 

"The following example is an illustration of compound pro- 
portion: If 5 men laboring 10 hours per day can dig a 
ditch 40 rods long and 3 feet deep in 6 days, how long a ditch 
4 feet deep can 8 men dig in 12 days, working 9 hours 
per day? 

"Statement — 5 Xiox6 : 8X9X12:: 40x3 14 times answer, 
in which the answer represents the length of the ditch in rods= 
86|. Generally the solution of problems in compound propor- 
tion can be much shortened by rejecting factors common 
to either extreme and either mean. This appears in the 
above example. The method of statement used is called the 
cause and effect method. It is that 1st cause : 2d cause : : 1st 
effect : 2d effect. Thus in the last example the number of men 
multiplied by the number of days multiplied by the number of 
hours per day is a cause, and the length of ditch multiplied by 
its depth is an effect, or the work accomplished. All problems 
are very- readily stated by this method, since causes and effects 
are nearly always physical causes and effects. 

"Arithmetical proportion concerns differences, or subtraction. 
Thus, 1, 2, 3, 4 are in arithmetical proportion, as there is the 
same difference, 1, between the consecutive numbers. Geomet- 
rical proportion concerns division, as 4:2::6:3, or £=§■; 4 
divided by 2 equals 2, the same as 6 divided by 3. The old 
Pine will want to remember the distinction between these two 
different kinds of proportion. 



262 ELLEN OR THE 

" Continued proportion is a succession of several equal ratios. 
Harmonical or musical proportion is a relation of several quan- 
tities, such that the first is to the last as the difference between 
the first two is to the difference between the last two ; thus 4, 
6, 12, are in harmonical proportion; for 4 is to 12 as 2 to 6. 

"A root is that which multiplied into itself one or more 
times will produce a given number ; and it is called the square 
root, cube root, fourth root, etc., as it has to be multiplied 
once, twice, three times, or more, to produce the number. 
Thus, 2 is the square root of 4; the cube root of 8; and the 
4th root of 16. The old Pine will find it very easy to multiply 
roots together so as to form numbers, and somewhat difficult 
to find out the different roots of. different numbers. A rational 
root is one commensurable with unity ; a surd is one which is 
not. Thus, 2 is the rational root of 4 or of 8, or of 16. But 
the square root of 2, 1.4142-}-, is called a surd, as it cannot be 
exactly expressed in numbers." 

"And does it not exist?" I asked. 

" It does not exist in our notation, as we have no figure which 
when multiplied by itself will give o for the right hand figure of 
the result. But the old Pine must remember that arithmetic, as 
constructed by man, as well as every other science, is artificial, 
and therefore imperfect." 

"In such a case," I said, " constantly as we proceed we come 
nearer and nearer to the correct result." 

"Yes," she said, " nearer and nearer, and always nearer, but 
never reaching the goal. But we have seen in the case of 
fractions, that what can be expressed in one system of notation 
cannot in another. This shows the different character of sys- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 263 

terns of notation, and suggests that the difficulty of expressing 
accurately the roots of numbers, when occurring, is a fault in 
the notation employed, and not that such roots are impossible. 
Thus, we can express the square root of 2 by a line, because of 
the principle in geometry that in a right angled triangle the 
square of the base plus the square of the perpendicular is equal 
to the square of the hypothenuse. But there can be no more 
accurate notation than the natural one of space. For this is 
nature's notation. And therefore it is certain that the square 
root of 2 can be accurately expressed." 

"And," I said, "in regard to the relation of the diameter to 
its circumference, we have the proposition in geometry that the 
circumferences of circles are to each other as their radii or 
diameters. Hence by inversion the circumference of one circle 
is to its diameter as that of another circle is to its diameter. 
And therefore if the diameter is doubled the circumference will 
be doubled ; or, if halved, so will the circumference be. That 
is, in all cases the circumference will vary as the diameter 
varies ; which means that the ratio of the circumference to its 
diameter is fixed." 

"Yes," she said, "we have that proposition, but its proof de- 
pends upon the theory of limits ; and therefore the proposition 
as proposed is not demonstrated to be true. But in spite of 
this, Ellen thinks that the circumference of a circle and its 
diameter are commensurable. The only question is whether 
two straight lines are commensurable. For we may suppose a 
certain number of parallel lines to be placed contiguous to each 
other, so as to make a continuous surface. Inscribe a circle 
upon them ; then must the circumference of this circle be com- 



264 ELLEN OR THE 

posed of a certain part of each of these parallel lines, the num- 
ber of lines included being determined by a second diameter at 
right angles to the first. This makes the circumference com- 
posed of a straight line, for instead of being composed of parts 
of many parallel lines it might as well be composed of different 
parts of the same straight line. And such straight line would 
represent the diameter extended." 

"But," I asked, "would there not be an insurmountable diffi- 
culty in the fact that the diameter is a straight line, and the 
circumference curved?" 

"Ellen thinks not," she answered; "for, admitting the in- 
finite division of matter, the material forming any circumference 
might be rearranged in a straight line. (Ellen is assuming that 
any circumference and every straight line is substantial ; that is, 
composed of a certain amount of matter, however infinitesimal 
the amount may be. For any existing line must be so com- 
posed. Nor does Ellen believe a non-existing line or surface 
is conceivable ; for she doesn't believe that nothing is con- 
ceivable. And if not, no unoccupied space is conceivable. 
The nearest we can come to such a supposition, as Ellen thinks, 
is a space wherein a certain particular substance, or any par- 
ticular substance, does not exist.) But a diameter is any 
straight line, and therefore the question whether the two are 
commensurable is a question whether two straight lines are 
commensurable, which they must be in nature's notation, 
because of its great adjustability, although, as in the case of 
the square root of 2, we can not express it in our notation. 

"Ellen will not dwell upon the rules for finding the different 
roots of numbers, for the old Pine can find these in nearly all 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 265 

arithmetics, and very plainly expounded. Besides, Ellen is 
going to show the old Pine all that, and lots of other interesting 
things, when she teaches him algebra. The square is composed 
of the square of tens, plus twice the product of the tens by the 
units, plus the square of the units. The cube is composed 
of the cube of the tens, plus three times the square of the tens 
by the units, plus three times the tens by the square of the 
units, plus the cube of the units. And from these principles 
these roots are readily deduced." 



266 ELLEN OR THE 



XXIII. 

PHE had risen, and was preparing to go. "The old Pine 
^ has been very much interested," I said, "with Ellen's talk 
upon arithmetic, and looks forward with much pleasure to the 
future talks on mathematics which she promises. But before 
Ellen goes to-day he wishes she would answer a few questions 
upon those subjects which she has previously discussed. Ellen 
has said that she did not think that thought was mind." 

"Then Ellen will sit down again," she said, "for the subjects 
are far-reaching and the old Pine is very inquisitive. Ellen 
doesn't think that thought is mind. She thinks mind some- 
thing entirely distinct, that it makes thought; and to say that 
thought was mind, she thinks, would be the same as to say 
that a man was any of the things which he makes. For these, 
as Ellen thinks, bear the same relation to man as thoughts or 
ideas to mind. 

"The old Pine will see that nothing could be more differ- 
ent than a man from those things which he makes — an ax, a 
spade or a wagon, house, or cotton factory. As far as the 
east is from the west, so great is the difference between the 
thing made and its maker ; and therefore, as Ellen thinks, must 
God be essentially different from those things which He makes, 
including man, although endowing man with mind, which works, 
at least to a certain extent, in harmony with His own. But Ellen 
notices this great difference between the mind of God and 




Ellen's Mountain, Winter. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 269 

that of man, that God creates both matter and concepts, 
whilst man is only able to use such as are created. And in 
this, as Ellen thinks, is the great distinction between mind as 
it appears in material conditions, — the mind of man, and ani- 
mals, as far as they have mind, — and Infinite Mind." 

"But if the laws of mind are universal, how can there be 
such difference?" I asked. 

''Mind everywhere uses the same materials," she replied, 
"and it is in their use that we see illustrated the universality 
of the laws of mind, for with all concepts or matter there is 
but one law of use, and wherever mind employs such mate- 
rials, of necessity it obeys the laws of their uses ; and there- 
fore does the mind of man work in harmony with the mind 
of God, and therefore may it understand His wonderful 
works. 

11 Animals also are endowed with mind in many different 
degrees, but their minds are of similar character to that of 
man, who is himself an animal ; and therefore as far as they 
are endowed with mind, it uses the same materials that the mind 
of man uses, and these materials are subject to the same laws." 

"Then," I said, "the law that governs the minds of animals, 
including man, is rather a law controlling the use of things 
than a law controlling mind?" 

"As Ellen thinks, it unquestionably is, in part. For, as we 
all know, it is impossible for the mind of man to create 
matter; and, as Ellen thinks, it is equally impossible for it to 
create concepts. As we also know, there are laws to control 
matter, all matter. Unquestionably, too, as Ellen thinks, there 
are laws to control concepts and their uses. These laws are 



2/0 ELLEN OR THE 

from God, and of God, and therefore a knowledge of them is 
a knowledge of Him. 

"But however limited the mind of man may be, it is the 
accomplishing principle and all the accomplishing principle 
that there is in man. For it would be as impossible for a 
spade, or any inanimate thing, to make the things which man 
makes, as for his arms, or legs, or eyes, or ears, or brain, 
or any or all organs that compose his body, to make them, 
with the principle of intelligence absent. Mind, then, is the 
creative power without which it is impossible that anything 
large or small should be created." 

"But what is the nature of the connection of the mind with 
the body? " I asked. 

"The old Pine is asking a most difficult question," she replied, 
" and Ellen doubts very much whether it is possible to answer 
it. But some things are evident and others perhaps discover- 
able. Ellen thinks that the essence of matter consists in 
motion and extension, but in what their essence consists she 
does not know, nor does she think that this will ever be known 
by man. All the knowledge that we can possibly have of the 
beginnings of things is in the existence of a Supreme Intelli- 
gence, self-existent and eternal ; for it is a matter of knowledge 
with us that nothing is created without the operation of mind. 
And therefore we know that the Supreme Intelligence first 
existed, and that all things else directly or indirectly have been 
created by Him. In the fact that the Creator must antedate 
the created, is the demonstration complete of the existence of 
a Being self-existent and eternal, who has created all things. 

"That intelligence must have existed in the beginning is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 27 1 

indeed certain," I said. "No one using reason can doubt it, 
but might it not be possible that matter is also self-existent 
and eternal? And might it not also be possible that the two 
principles of mind and matter always coexist; and that the 
one would be impossible without the other?" 

"Ellen thinks not," she said. "In the first place, Revela- 
tion tells us that this is not so ; that the soul will continue to 
exist independent of matter, and in its nature is indissoluble 
and eternal. But, as Ellen thinks, reason also demonstrates 
such to be the fact. Thus it is evident that mind, so far 
as it is manifested to us, is manifested in animals, and this 
because of the organ of the brain which they possess. So 
far, then, as our perceptions reach, mind in some way is 
dependent upon brain. Wherever there is brain there is 
some mind perceptible to us. Wherever the organ of brain 
is entirely wanting to our perceptions, there, to our percep- 
tions, intelligence also is entirely wanting. But Ellen is sus- 
picious that there is some brain and some intelligence in 
plant life, though not visible to us ; but if so there is some 
mixture in plants of that substance which forms brain, 
though concealed from man's vision. But however that may 
be, apparently we have existing all the materials for an 
antithesis between matter and mind, or mind and matter. 
Thus all gradations in mind are seen in animals, beginning with 
the lowest forms of animal life, and culminating in man; 
nor is there any doubt, as Ellen thinks, that this gradation con- 
tinues, until pure mind is reached.* It follows, then, from 
the universality of nature's laws, in the great law of opposites, 

* See quotation from Locke, p. 175. 



272 ELLEN OR THE 

that matter exists independently of mind, and mind of matter; 
and that between takes place the great principle of differences, 
through which, and which only, creation, as we know it, exists. 
The wonderful thing in all this is the manner in which two 
things entirely dissimilar are joined. But Ellen thinks that as 
to this we may perhaps get knowledge, or, at least, information, 
from studying the combination of things which we are able to 
understand. 

"Salt may not be mixed with all things. It will mix with 
liquids, but not at all well with solids. And it would be 
very discouraging for Ellen to undertake to salt a rock, though 
she might salt the outside of it ; and still more to salt this 
mountain, and more yet a range of mountains. Certain condi- 
tions are then needed for the antithesis of salt and not salt to 
be manifested. And the same is true of all antitheses. And 
always, too, the conditions are different, though with similar 
things they might be very similar. 

"The antithesis of far and near takes place wherever there is 
space ; that of sleeping and waking where there are things 
which sleep and wake. But it would be impossible for these 
antitheses to take place without these conditions, and so of all 
antitheses the necessary conditions must exist in order that 
they may take place, and thus it is with mind and matter. 

"And therefore, as Ellen thinks, we can see the reason of 
the different forms of life. They constitute a part of crea- 
tion, and they constitute that part in which are combined, in 
a vast system of differences, the two inconvertible principles of 
mind and matter. And here, as Ellen thinks, is demonstrated 
the impassable distinction between mind and matter. For in 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 273 

all nature it is impossible that a thing should become its oppo- 
site. As soon shall the just be the unjust or the unjust the 
just; the even the odd or the odd the even ; day night or night 
day; truth a lie or a lie truth, as matter mind or mind matter. 
What does the old Pine see when he looks out upon this beau- 
tiful view, the lake and the mountains, whether frozen and 
covered with snow, or sparkling and clothed with verdure? " 

"He sees matter," I said. 

"Yes," she said; "and nowhere does he see mind, for it 
isn't given to the old Pine, so Ellen thinks, nor to Ellen, to look 
upon mind. Mind, with the machinery of the body, may look 
upon matter, for God has so arranged it; but not here, not yet, 
can the old Pine or Ellen with the bodily eyes look upon mind. 

"But when the mind gazes with the spiritual eye, then, as 
Ellen thinks, darkly and dimly because of its surroundings, 
it beholds the better land that lies beyond the sea of death, and 
hears the greetings from the further shore. Always the spirit 
within strives after the spirit without. Has the old Pine any 
doubt of this?" 

"Not any," I said. 

" As the fledglings leave their nests, so the soul prepares for 
its flight, and always whilst it exists confined to the body, it 
lifts up its voice to God for help and comfort in the time of 
trouble. Does the old Pine think that there is ever a time- 
when God does not hear that cry?" 

"No," I said; "he knows that there is not." 

"And Ellen knows that there is not," she said. "And again, 
never does the soul with right motive perform a good deed, 
without experiencing a sense of delight, that is among the 



274 ELLEN OR THE 

most complete and satisfactory of all those sensations which 
we are capable of experiencing; for God has so ordained it. 
And thus the text, 'It is more blessed to give than to receive,' 
becomes a practical reality. 

"All of this is so evident, and the moral of it is so evident, 
that Ellen does not care to apply it. Mind, then, exists inde- 
pendent of matter. But it certainly does not so exist here, and 
therefore there must be another existence." 

"But do not opposites come from each other?" I asked. 

"Certain opposites do," she said, "as sleeping and waking; 
others in the sense that the two principles might coexist in 
many proportions ; but, as Ellen thinks, in no other sense. 
Mind comes from matter by the admixture of mind, just as 
the salt comes from the not salt by the admixture of salt, 
or the beautiful from the not beautiful by the admixture 
of beauty, the far from the near by the admixture of distance, 
the sweet from the not sweet by the admixture of sweet, and 
odor from the odorless, or taste from the tasteless, by the 
admixture of odor or flavor. In the same way mind comes 
from matter by the admixture of mind, and in no other 
way, as Ellen thinks. And this is the great law of opposites. 
They mean difference, and because of difference it is impos- 
sible that they should be alike. But difference cannot exist 
without something for it to exist between, and therefore in that 
sense opposites are dependent upon each other, the one not 
being able to exist without the other ; that is, without this 
great principle of differences existence would be impossible ; 
and hence, when anything exists, its opposite exists ; for 
things exist by opposites, this principle being present in all 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 275 

existence, and it is just as essential with mind and matter as 
elsewhere, the one existence predicating the other ; but, as we 
see, they may exist together in very different proportions, or 
may exist entirely separate from each other. And this, as 
Ellen believes, is the universal law of existence, the way that 
things are made, the way that creation is made. The old Pine 
would have made it all very differently, wouldn't he?" 

"The old Pine couldn't make it," I said; "nor can he con- 
ceive how it could be made in any better manner." 

"Neither can Ellen," she continued. "It seems to be a very 
good arrangement, together with the other laws of construc- 
tion, for making a creation. Anyway, it's the way it's made, 
and the old Pine's and Ellen's criticisms, if they chose to 
make them, could have no effect. 

" It follows from this great law of construction, that all 
things ; everything, every possible thing, in this great universe, 
is substantial, composed of a substance, which, so far as we 
know, is material or spiritual. Second, that there are different 
orders of existences as illustrated to us, and only illustrated to 
us, in mind and matter. Third, that animal life is a bond of 
connection between these different orders of existence. And 
fourth, that there is a distinction in spiritual substances, for 
mind, which we are familiar with, cannot create the material 
with which it works, either concepts or matter, though it is 
able to use such as are already created and brought within 
its reach. There is a similar difference here to that which 
exists, in the material creation, between those bodies, as the 
sun, which shine with their own, and those, as the moon or 
planets, which shine with reflected light. 



276 ELLEN OR THE 

" The general character of these principles is the same 
that we are constantly confronted with in our daily life, only 
in the greater universe machinery is constructed of matter 
direct, for mind, a certain quality of mind, to use, while 
we construct similar but not so remarkable machinery from 
matter, for the same mind to use through the machinery of 
the body. That is, man has already been largely provided with 
machinery fitted for his use in this material sphere, and what- 
ever is added artificially, by his own contrivance, must be 
adapted to, and in aid of, that already provided by nature. 

"And now, as this great principle of antitheses is shown to 
be everywhere used in the construction of the universe, 
Ellen will define it again. It consists in each separate thing 
having a character of its own, and therefore being different 
from everything else. This necessitates that there should be 
other things, else there would be but one thing in the uni- 
verse. A new thing being formed, by a very simple law it 
may create new things with every other thing with which 
it may- be combined, and this is so arranged that the exact 
character of the thing thus created depends upon the law of 
combination; and thus we get that system of differences by 
which creation takes place. The principle, then, of. opposites 
comes from everything having its own character, and the 
system of differences, in which the varying conditions of a thing 
are manifested, from the admixture of different things. 

"As we have seen, there are certain opposites that take place 
because of their opposites. Thus with sleeping and waking, 
and, as Ellen thinks, with life and death, the one flowing 
into or opening up into the other. And so it is very similar 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 277 

with light and darkness, but the day which follows night is 
composed of light. Thus by the addition of a little light we 
have the dawn and by more the day ; later by the withdrawal 
of light, the twilight, followed by the night. 

''And thus the old Pine will see that by # this principle of 
opposites, one of the most important in the construction 
of the universe, the demonstration is complete, first, that mind 
and matter are wholly and always different, and second that 
there is another condition of existence where mind exists 
independent of matter." 



278 ELLEN OR THE 



XXIV. 

t( r I ^HE old Pine is entirely satisfied," I said, "with the argu- 
* ment which Ellen has advanced of the radical difference 
between mind and matter, and he thinks that it is a demonstra- 
tion of such distinction. And yet this subject is one of so 
great interest, and one upon which so many varying opinions 
are held, that he wishes Ellen would discuss it further and from 
a different standpoint." 

"Very well," she said; "Ellen will do the best she can. 
She told the old Pine she didn't believe it would be possible 
to discover the exact nature of the connection between the 
soul and the body." 

"And what is the soul, Ellen?" 

"Ellen doesn't know." 

"And hasn't she any idea of what it is and how it acts?" 

"Not any of what it is, only she thinks that in some way it 
may have radiative action. And Ellen thinks that she has 
demonstrated that it is something entirely distinct from matter. 
As Ellen thinks, the illustration of the relation between them is 
complete in that of the engine and the engineer. This and 
kindred facts which come within the scope of our comprehen- 
sion point, as Ellen thinks, to a universal law separating mind 
and matter, bodies being as much automata as engines are." 

"But why, then," I said, "should the soul suffer when the 
body is wrecked?" 












*# 



;* " 




WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 28 1 

"For the same reason that the engineer suffers when his 
engine is wrecked — because he is mixed up with the wreck." 

"But," I said, "always the soul is hurt if the body is hurt; 
and this is not the case with the engineer." 

"Ellen sees," she said, "that the soul is far more intimately 
connected with the body than the engineer with his engine, 
which might show a more marvelous power in the maker. 
But we continually recognize that the creations of God are far 
more wonderful than those of man. Ellen can imagine that 
two very different things might be so fastened together that one 
could not be injured without injuring the other." 

"But why should this be done?" I asked. 

"And why shouldn't it be," she answered, "if the general 
purposes for which the creation was made were improved by 
such condition? Ellen can see that it might take place, it being 
supposably far better in most cases that it should be so than 
otherwise. Thus, clothing is useful and desirable, but fre- 
quently, caught by machinery, it causes the injury or death of 
the wearer." 

"But how does Ellen suppose that the soul can be so con- 
nected with the body?" 

"Ellen doesn't suppose, and cannot suppose at all, for she. 
doesn't know the nature of the soul ; but she can imagine it is 
of such nature that it might be so connected. She knows that 
it must be of some nature, nor does she know why, if of any 
nature, there might not be some such connection. 

"But the old Pine* mustn't get things mixed, and suppose the 
soul is destroyed with the body. The injury of the body 
means discomfort greater or less to the soul, for the machinery 



282 ELLEN OR THE 

is thus arranged, undoubtedly, because thus best adapted to the 
purposes for which it is made. As Ellen thinks, any possible 
discomfort is a temporary one, and it is in this fact that the 
sufferings of all kinds, which might often seem to us harsh 
and cruel, are not so, but something which are readily enough 
endured, being of short duration. Nor does Ellen think that 
it is possible for the spiritual part to be long affected, but that 
soon it is released and under some other form, at least under 
other conditions, continues in its functions. And therefore 
may we see of what secondary importance are all material 
things ; for they can stay with us only for an instant, but the 
results of virtue are lasting." 

''And what is virtue, Ellen?" I asked. 

"Proper action of the soul," she said, "which includes per- 
ception and observance of the laws of its being; and as this 
being is continuous, the effects of such actions are lasting, not 
limited to its existence in the body, as are all material condi- 
tions, and therefore of far more consequence." 

"And what is the character of these laws?" 

"There are many principles to control the soul's action," she 
replied, "but the most important principle is that of its rela- 
tivity to other souls ; for so perfect is the order of things that, 
only through the good of all can the best results come to any. 

"With the bodily eye we get no knowledge whatever of the 
soul, excepting, as Ellen thinks, to view its goods — thought 
and the emotions. But, luckily, man is not confined in his 
knowledge to such things only as he may see with his bodily 
eye. Beside this bodily vision, is mental vision; and the eye 
of the mind is infinitely stronger than that of the body. With 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 283 

the mind's eye we are able to penetrate the mysteries of crea- 
tion, and Ellen knows not at all the possibilities of discovery 
in this direction. For minds rise as naturally to a mental 
height as the body can to a physical height, and thus discover 
many new things ; and Ellen can imagine that in the fullness 
of time perhaps all things which connect with the present ex- 
istence will become manifest to us. In this ascending of the 
mind to a mental height is, too, illustrated again the similarity 
of spiritual and physical action. 

''Then, beside the ordinary mental vision, is the vision of 
faith. Perhaps nowhere in creation is the thoroughness of 
nature more wonderfully illustrated than in this additional pro- 
vision for the soul, by which it is enabled to perceive the 
reality of things, although not perceiving all the conditions. 

"Of course the soul, to get advantage of such aids, must use 
them. And the law of the use of these marvelous aids of 
vision, is of a character fitted to their nature. It is, too, of a 
similar character to the law of the use of all instruments for 
the aid of sight ; only, as it concerns mental vision instead of 
physical, it is adjusted to mental and not physical conditions. 

" Thus with the great telescopes invented by man, it is 
necessary that the atmosphere should be clear to get any 
results, and exceedingly clear to get the best; so that such 
glasses are often taken to some particularly good climate, and 
cannot be used at all in the smoky and impure atmosphere 
of cities. And so it is with faith, especially when connected 
with religion or morals. The promise to see God is to the 
pure in heart. The old Pine wouldn't have made things this 
way, would he? " 



284 ELLEN OR THE 

"The old Pine couldn't have made them at all," I said. 

" Well," she continued, "God 'has made them this way. 
Surely the old Pine didn't suppose that things took place with- 
out any reason, did he, as that the soul was endowed with the 
principle of faith, but that this principle was without signifi- 
cance? Ellen doesn't think so at all, but that every principle 
in nature is important, and all her works perfect : 

* To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, 
To throw a perfume on the violet, 
To smooth the ice, or add another hue 
Unto the rainbow, or with taper-light 
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, 
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.' 

But Ellen would as soon think to paint the lily, as to criticise 
the hand that painted it. 

" Did the old Pine think that either the mind's eye, or the 
eye of faith could see what does not exist? It could no more 
do it than could the physical eye. In either case, at times, 
the mind might be mistaken in what it thought it saw, but 
in neither case would it be possible for the eye to see any- 
thing excepting that which in some form existed." 

"And how would Ellen explain," I asked, "the gradations 
of mind as illustrated in animal life — that is, the ability of 
mind to appear in a great system of differences the same as 
matter does? Ellen has explained that matter so appears 
because of its being composed of parts, so that a little or a 
great deal of it may be mixed with other things, thus forming 
what Ellen terms the great system of differences. Surely Ellen 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 285 

does not think mind thus formed of parts? In what manner, 
then, is it able to appear in all these different conditions?" 

"By another law," she answered, "as Ellen thinks; for it is 
evident that every soul is a separate existence. And it is also 
evident that the principle of differences enters into the charac- 
ter of souls as much as it does into that of matter. Thus one 
soul or principle of intelligence is of a certain force and char- 
acter, and another of a different one ; and so each is different. 
As we have seen in the discussion of heredity the soul, as con- 
nected with the body, does not represent knowledge, but a power 
of acquiring and using knowledge. And therefore differences 
in souls, as it seems to Ellen, consists in a difference of capacity 
to acquire and use concepts, which represent knowledge, and 
perhaps also a difference in the character of its endeavors. 

"As Ellen thinks, in the two great domains of existence, the 
spiritual and material, there is a general and universal similarity 
of conditions, although the two divisions are absolutely and 
always distinct. Thus, a similar system of differences appears 
to rule in each. So we have seen in each a division between 
those things which act by original or by reflected power, as 
illustrated by the difference between the sun and the planets, 
and between the mind of God and that of man or animals. 
And, continuing this analogy, Ellen thinks that there are other 
and many beings besides God whose minds may thus act in- 
dependently, as there are many suns in the universe which so 
act, but that all things exist in God whose presence is every- 
where ; and that thus, too, all suns stand in a certain relation 
to some great central sun about which all revolve. In some 
such system as this, it seems to Ellen, creation exists, 



286 ELLEN OR THE 

"Nor is it possible, in the material world, for things to exist 
without being more or less influenced by all other things which 
exist. Neither is it possible in the spiritual kingdom, and the 
influences are proportional to the beings or things existing, and 
their relation to each other. And thus, as Ellen thinks, do 
those spheres which radiate light affect all other spheres which 
come within the influence of such radiation. And thus, too, is 
the influence of God, Creator and Ruler over all things, mani- 
fested everywhere. 

"Surely the old Pine didn't suppose that every individual 
existence was alike spiritually any more than materially, did 
he? Nor need the differences of mind be at all similar to those 
of matter. 

" And following this great analogy of existence, Ellen thinks 
that the mind, or soul, wherever existing, may exist with a cer- 
tain radiative principle operating everywhere within the sphere 
of its radiation. Thus in the material kingdom we have not 
only suns, planets, moons, and other heavenly bodies, either 
self luminous or reflecting, radiating light everywhere within the 
spheres of their radiation, but we have artificial lights of many 
kinds doing the same. And thus, too, odors or sound would 
appear to be radiated in all directions from the odorous or 
sounding body. In any case such radiation might be obstructed 
or interfered with by other bodies; but this does not change 
the nature of its law. 

"But the soul acts not at all until ideas are introduced to it 
by sensation. Nor can they be introduced in any other way 
than by the organs of sensation. Those organs which- are con- 
nected with nutrition cannot introduce them. They are for an 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 287 

entirely different purpose. The nutritive processes of the 
body build up and keep in repair all its organs, but do not at 
all decide the nature of their uses." 

"And where among these organs," I asked, " would Ellen 
include the brain?" 

"Ellen is suspicious," she replied, "that the brain maybe 
entirely an organ for preserving records. One of its great 
functions certainly is that of a printing press ; and in some 
form its material represents the parchment upon which the 
records of the soul are printed. This, then, is one of its func- 
tions, perhaps its principal one, perhaps its only one. Does 
not the old Pine suppose that all intelligence wants records? 
Ellen thinks that no intelligent mind could get along a bit well 
without a printing establishment, or at least without a well 
organized library. And this would appear to be the depart- 
ment of the brain ; and it's always at work, certainly when it's 
awake, and more or less when it's asleep. But Ellen doesn't 
think the impressions are very good when it's asleep, for things 
aren't prepared right. Many of the impressions which it makes 
when it's asleep are so faint that they fade out almost instantly. 
And Ellen thinks that this is entirely due to a want of proper 
preparation. For in the nature of the machinery the prepara- 
tion is accomplished by the circulatory action and perhaps 
other processes of the body, but the bodily organs won't work 
to advantage more than about 16 hours a day, more or less. 
And here again the old Pine will see the analogy between our 
outer life and inner life. For the laws of nature always, as 
Ellen thinks, are similar in similar conditions. 

"But the old Pine will see that every body represents a 



28$ ELLEN OR THE 

printing establishment ; and the organs of sensation act as inter- 
viewers, and the nerves of sensation bring in the reports, which 
are printed and laid up for reference in the archives of the 
brain. This being so, there would appear to be uses enough 
for the brain to account for its existence, without supposing 
it to perform any other functions. " 

"And does Ellen think that the records of sound are thus 
preserved?" 

" Certainly," she replied. "The graphophone is a marvelous 
illustration of the manner in which the records of sound may 
be, and, as Ellen thinks, are constructed out of the material of 
the brain. And so in different manner other records are con- 
structed. ' 

"There is no possible question about all of this, as Ellen 
thinks. For, as she believs, the fact of the existence of a prin- 
ciple, as that of the printing press, camera, or graphophone, 
anywhere, is a demonstration of its existence throughout the 
universe ; and whenever that class of phenomena happen which 
we know to result from such a principle, then we may be sure 
the principle is present. For always similar phenomena are per- 
formed in a similar manner in every part of the universe ; there 
is no other way. And this because of the universality of nature's 
laws. This is true science ; and any pretended science that 
falls short of this is not science, but ignorance. This is the way 
all things are made. And the order of it is as plainly unfolded 
to our mental vision, if we will but look at it, as a completed 
chart or map is to the physical eye. For God has so made 
things that nowhere in all the immensity of His universe is 
there a place unpervaded by law, or in which a similar law 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 289 

does not operate to bring about similar results, or the same law 

to bring about the same results. 

"And all things are substantial. It would be impossible for 

them not to be. They couldn't otherwise exist. For of 

nothing, nothing is, or can be. This is a fundamental principle 

of all creation ; an axiom, or self-evident truth. But it is also 

true that substance prevails everywhere ; material substance 

everywhere in its own sphere, and spiritual everywhere in its 

sphere; but the spiritual enters all spheres. And therefore is 

it certain that the methods of the soul, by which its activities are 

conducted within us, are the same as those by which they are 

conducted without us. The one we can see with the mental 

eye, 

' In my mind's eye, Horatio,' 

the other with the physical eye ; for the physical eye is adapted 
to view material things and the mental, spiritual things. And 
these two kingdoms are sharply separated, as the elements of 
water and air are separated, so that it is impossible for the 
physical eye to behold the spiritual kingdom, but the mind's 
eye can do this. And, as Ellen thinks, by use, with proper 
observation of the laws of those uses, its power of vision may 
be immensely strengthened, and thus the secrets of another 
existence, which as certainly follows this existence as the day 
follows the night, be made manifest to us. 

"The relation of the brain, then, to the soul, would be the 
same as that of all other bodily organs, simply for its use ; 
and this, as Ellen thinks, is the fact. The brain is for the 
recording processes of the soul ; and, indeed, the whole body 
resolves itself into machinery for this same general purpose, 



290 ELLEN OR THE 

with the total result, as would appear, of the reproduction of 
personal existence in material conditions. And these records 
represent knowledge, the knowledge of the soul, and therefore 
as they are destroyed with the body they cannot be inherited 
as material things can." 

"And does Ellen think," I asked, "that if these records could 
be preserved, the knowledge of the soul which compiles them 
might be preserved, and perhaps inherited?" 

" Ellen feels very sure that they represent the knowledge 
which is fitted for the material conditions of each soul, and all 
such knowledge. Nor is there any provision for their inherit- 
ance, and being a part o«f the body they perish with it." 

"And does Ellen think," I asked, "that in the creation of 
man the inheritance of knowledge might have been included?" 

"Very possibly," she answered, "but the old Pine will see 
that the only part which is desirable — the power of acquiring 
knowledge — is inherited. For, as Ellen thinks, nothing could 
be more undesirable than that one life should inherit the 
records of another." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 293 



XXV. 



^I3UT," I said, "the old Pine has never heard such explana- 
*— " tion as Ellen suggests for the nature of memory and 
the action of the soul, although it would appear to be in the 
line of nature's laws for the operation of similar phenomena, 
and therefore reasonable and probable, if not certain. Has 
Ellen ever seen such explanation given?" 

" Ellen has not followed any authority," she answered, " but 
has given what she thinks is certainly the explanation of mem- 
ory, because of the universality of nature's laws. She finds 
that a similar explanation was given by the very ingenious 
philosopher, Robert Hooke, of whom Chambers' Encyclo- 
paedia says : 

' Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher, born at Freshwater, 
Isle of Wight, July 18, 1635, was educated at Westminster school, and 
at Christ-Church, Oxford. In 1662 he was appointed curator of ex- 
periments to the Royal Society, and in 1667 became its secretary; in 
1664, professor of geometry in Gresham College, London; and in 1666, 
surveyor for the city of London, a most lucrative appointment. He 
died at Gresham College, March 3, 1703. Hooke was a man of extraor- 
dinary inventive genius, and has justly been considered as the greatest 
of philosophical mechanics ; the wonderful sagacity, nay almost intuition, 
he shewed in deducing correct general laws from meagre premises, has 
never before or since been equalled. There was no important invention 
by any philosopher of that time which was not in part anticipated by 
Hooke. His theory of gravitation subsequently formed part of New- 



294 ELLEN OR THE 

ton's ; he anticipated the invention of the steam-engine, and the discov- 
ery of the laws of the constrained motions of planets. Among his own 
completed discoveries are, the law of the extension and compression of 
elastic bodies, "ut tensio sic vis-" the simplest theory of the arch; the 
balance-spring of watches and the anchor-escapement of clocks ; the per- 
manency of the temperature of boiling water. The quadrant, telescope, 
and microscope are also materially indebteded to him.' 

" Mr. Hooke says: 

1 Before I come to the discussing of the particular matters treated of 
in the last section, I would a little further consider what I have been dis- 
coursing of, viz., time. And here, since it is a general maxim in the 
schools, that Nihil est in Intellectu, quod nonfuit pris in Sensu, I would 
query by what sense it is we come to be informed of time : for all the 
information we have from the senses is momentary and only lasts during 
the impressions made by the object. There is therefore yet wanting a 
sense to apprehend time ; for such a notion we have. And yet no one 
of our senses, nor all together, can furnish us with it, and yet we con- 
ceive of it as a quantity. For this therefore, since we cannot find any 
external or outward sense, we must seek within, and we shall find there 
is somewhat like that which is called Communis Sensus, which is recep- 
tive of all the outward impressions of the other senses. But still this is 
insufficient to afford us the notion or knowledge of time ; for the impres- 
sions on that can be no other than the impressions from the other senses, 
conveyed by the Media of the sensory nerves, which must be also mo- 
mentary, as well as the first impressions , and consequently do not yet 
sufficiently inform us of the notion of time. Considering this, I say, we 
shall find a necessity of supposing some other organ to apprehend the 
impression that is made by time. And this I conceive to be no other 
than that which we generally call memory, which memory I suppose to 
be as much an organ as the eye, ear or nose, and to have its situation 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 295 

somewhere near the place where the nerves from the other senses con- 
cur and meet. 



' For the soul, or first principle of life, though it be an incorporeal 
being, yet in performing its actions, makes use of corporeal organs, and 
without them cannot effect what it wills. 

' Memory then I conceive to be nothing else but a repository of ideas 
formed partly by the senses, but chiefly by the soul itself : I say, partly 
by the senses, because they are as it were the collectors or carriers of 
the impressions made by objects from without, delivering them to the 
repository or storehouse where they are to be used. * * * For I 
conceive no idea can be really formed or stored up in this repository, 
without the directive and architectonical power of the soul ; and the 
actions or impressions cease and fail without the concurrent act of the 
soul, which regulates and disposes of such powers. 

******** 

' This repository I conceive to be seated in the brain, and the sub- 
stance thereof I conceive to be the material out of which these ideas 
are formed, and where they are also preserved when formed, being dis- 
posed in some regular order ; which order I conceive to be principally 
that according to which they are formed, that being first in order that is 
first formed, and that next which is next, and so continually by succes- 
sion, from the time of our birth to the time of our death. So that there 
is as it were a continued chain of ideas coiled up in the repository of 
the brain, the first end of which is farthest removed from the center 
or seat of the soul where the ideas are formed ; and the other end is 
always at the center, being the last idea formed, which is always the 
moment present when considered. And therefore according as there 
are a greater number of these ideas between the present sensation or 
thought in the center, and any other, the more is the soul apprehensive 
of the time interposed. 



296 ELLEN OR THE 

* These are the Supollex of the soul, and these are the instruments it 
makes use of in the apprehending of things or actions past ; and by 
these it becomes sensible of all that it really knows, and according to 
the perfection or imperfection, the multitude or paucity, the regularity 
or irregularity of the order and disposition of these ideas in the reposi- 
tory or memory, the aptitude or ineptitude of the substance for forma- 
tion, radiation, disposition, etc., so is the soul the better enabled, first, 
to form new ideas aright, or rightly to apprehend the thing to be 
known. Secondly to apprehend the order according to which they 
have been formed, and are ranged ; that is, to know the time, or, to 
speak in the common phrase, to remember what is past, as if it was 
present, and how long it is since it was done, by the number of ideas 
between. 



' I suppose then this repository to be furnished with variety of matter 
adapted for the uses to which the soul applies them, which I call the 
elements out of which ideas are made ; among which variety there are 
principally five forms fitted and adapted to receive the impressions 
from the five senses ; that is, one peculiar kind for the impressions of 
sight,, which is of such a quality, form, make, bulk, or other constitu- 
tion, as makes it receptive and retentive of the impressions of light and 
colors, which none of the other bodies are capable of. Which may a 
little be explained by the matter of the phosphorus made of the 
Bononian stone, or that found out by Baldwiiius made of chalk and 
niter ; which matters are so made and adapted by the chymical prep- 
arations of them by the force of fire and mixtures made in their 
processes, that they, so soon as exposed to the impressions of light, 
receive and retain those impressions, though for no long time, yet 
enough to show us a spcimen of a certain qualification not to be found 
in most other bodies, which may yet possibly be done much more 
powerfully and effectually by the chymistry of nature in the digestions 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 297 

and preparations made in the wonderful laboratory of the animal body ; 
where all things are ordered and adapted by the all-wise Creator, for the 
work to be done : so that nothing can be imagined wanting or redun- 
dant to perform what is by His intention designed to be done. 

' Another sort of matter I suppose to be that which is fitted to receive 
the impressions of sound, somewhat like those bells or vases which 
Vitruvius mentions to be placed in the ancient theaters, which did 
receive and return the sound more vigorous and strong ; or like the 
unison-toned strings, bells or glasses, which receive impressions from 
sounds without, and retain that impression for some time, answering the 
tone by the same tone of their own. And though in these examples 
(which I am fain to bring for explication only) there seems wanting the 
great requisite of a power to retain for a long while those impressions 
which are so given, they all of them losing them in a very short time ; 
yet, as I shall by and by show, they do and will each of them retain 
their several impressions long enough to make them sufficient for pro- 
ducing the same reactions whenever they are again acted upon. And 
such an impression I shall prove is again given both by the soul and by 
succeeding similar sensations : for having potentiality of receiving, and 
being excited by such impressions, they do again renew their former 
impression, and afresh show their power. 

' The like appropriated materials I suppose also for the impressions 
of the other three senses, viz., smelling, tasting, feeling; each of 
which is qualified to receive and retain the impressions from the other 
senses. 



' Now I do suppose, that the repository is continually supplied with a 
sufficient quantity of these kinds of substances, with which the sense 
does continually form ideas, and dispose of them into the repository of 
memory, and that without those materials, and the concurrent impres- 
sions of the senses, it cannot form them : for otherwise a blind man 



298 ELLEN OR THE 

would have ideas of colors, which yet he has not, and a sick man would 

have a true idea of tastes, which yet he has not. 

******** 

' I suppose there may be about this place, which I will henceforward 
call the center, a certain sphere of capacity filled with adapted matter, 
for the formation, reception, and containing of all the ideas which shall 
be emitted from the said center. These ideas I will suppose to be ma- 
terial and bulky, that is, to be certain bodies of determinate bigness, 
and to be in themselves distinct ; and therefore that nc two of them 
can be in the same space, but that they are actually different and sepa- 
rate one from another. 

******** 

' I will suppose further, that the soul may every moment, partly by its 
own immediate power, and partly by the help of the impressions pro- 
duced by the senses, form one of these ideas, and insert it into the 

repository. 

******** 

' So that if a man allows but two or three hundred a day, nay, but 
one hundred for every day he hath lived, since he was born to his pres- 
ent moment, he will find that number large enough to contain all the 
ideas he has really stored up in the organ of his memory. As supposing 
a man of fifty years of age, who according to that compute must have 
lived 18,262 days; and conseqently if you reckon but a hundred for 
each day, must have 1,826,200. It will be very hard, I conceive, for a 
man of that age perfectly to remember so many distinct things, though 
yet I will not say it is impossible. But supposing he could by recollect- 
ing remember 100 millions, and consequently must have as many dis- 
tinct ideas, I see no reason why all these may not actually be contained 
within the sphere of the activity of the soul acting in the center. For 
if we consider in how small a bulk of body there may be as many dis- 
tinct living creatures as here are supposed ideas, and every of these 
creatures perfectly formed and endowed with all its vegetative and an- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 299 

imal functions, and with sufficient room also left for it to move itself to 
and fro among and between all the rest,, so as to pass by every one and 
touch none, we shall not need to fear any impossibility to find out room 
in the brain where this sphere may be placed, and yet find room enough 
for all other uses, of which we may afterwards assign some very neces- 
sary. 

******** 

' I do further conceive, that that action of the soul which we call 
thinking, is a more particular radiation of the soul to this or that part 
of the repository, or on this or that idea placed in it, and at the same time 
forming new ideas in the center of the repository ; which action of the 
soul in framing new ideas at the center, is continued almost every mo- 
ment. And though it doth not every moment make a distinct idea, 
yet may it be perfecting of one, and giving new impressions every mo- 
ment. And thence I conceive the body of one idea (for as I before 
mentioned, I suppose them to be really corporeal and material) may 
have many and various impressions and motions annexed to it, possibly 
of 100, nay of 1000 moments, whence that idea may be supposed to be 
more complete and perfect in itself. And when it again comes to be 
acted upon by the radiation of the soul, all the impressions or qualifica- 
tions thereof become of power to affect the soul with those impressions 
which it had formerly received from the soul. 

' So that thinking is partly memory, and partly an operation of the 
soul in forming new ideas. 

******** 

'The soul then is the Primum movens, the self-moving principle, 
which has in itself a power of radiating every way in Orbem from 
its center of being every instant and for ever, and so is always by means 
of that radiation everywhere as it were actually present, in every point 
of the sphere of its radiation, though yet it may be supposed to be more 
immediately and powerfully present in the center of its being. It is 



300 ELLEN OR THE 

not, I conceive, possible to be truly understood or described, but only 
by similitude ; and the best similitude for that purpose, I conceive, is 
the sun in the great world. 

******** 

' Somewhat of this kind is the influence of the soul upon the ideas 
placed within the sphere of its radiation. And though I cannot con- 
ceive how the soul, which is incorporeal, should move and act upon the 
ideas which are corporeal, or how those on the other side should by 
their proprieties, qualifications and motions, react upon and influence 
the soul ; yet I am assured, that such effects are performed both by the 
one and the other beings ; and without them, neither the sensation, cog- 
nition, remembering, nor ratiocination, could be performed, all which 
are plainly the results of the conjunct influences of the soul, and the 
ideas or bodies placed within the repository or sphere of its activity.' " 

"And does Ellen think," I asked, "that these supposition? cf 
Mr. Hooke are correct? " 

" Ellen thinks, as she has said, that something similar cer- 
tainly takes place. For it is impossible for things to happen 
without cause, and causes must be both appropriate and suffi- 
cient. And this further Ellen thinks, as she has said, that the 
processes of education of the soul within are the same as those 
without. It is the same soul, only learning under different con-, 
ditions. Through the aid of nature's universal principle of re- 
production it is enabled to have two libraries, one without and 
one within. Indeed it may have a number without and possibly 
within. 

"From nothing, nothing can come, and therefore it is in the 
nature of a self evident truth, that memory is something substan- 
tial. Can the old Pine imagine any better way, or any other way, 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 301 

than one of record for the construction of memory, or did he 
suppose that memory was nothing and composed of nothing? 
If so, he must suppose that everything is nothing and composed 
of nothing, for all things might as well be made this way as one 
thing." 

'The old Pine knows perfectly well," I answered, "that 
everything in the whole universe is substantial. For the spirit- 
ual must be equally substantial with the material. But the old 
Pine thought that memory was an inherent spiritual power." 

"And so in its essence Ellen thinks it is," she answered, "but 
it is most evident that all things which we have to do with in 
this material world are reproductions? and nothing, as Ellen 
thinks, is more certain than that memory, in its material mani- 
festation, is not a perpetual, inherent power ; for, if it was, it 
should remember all things, which we know very well it does 
not do, but that such power is supplied by books of record 
which we are able to consult. And thus we know, for it is not 
a matter of opinion but of knowledge, that memory consists in 
record, a part of which is kept in our business office outside, 
and a part at our home office within. 

"Beyond all possible question, memory is an organ, as Mr. 
Hooke suggests, as much so as the eye or ear. And, of 
course, it is adapted to its purposes, the same as the eye and 
the ear are to theirs ; and, as the eye is particularly engaged 
and constantly engaged in the arrangement of pictures, so the 
memory is particularly engaged and constantly engaged in the 
arrangement of records. 

" This is a self-evident truth that no one can doubt who is 
able to see, that 2 and 2 make 4. And, as we know what 



302 ELLEN OR THE 

pictures are, and how they are made, and for what purpose, so 
we know what records are, and how they are made, and for 
what purpose. And as the pictures in the eye must be and are 
taken in the same manner as those in a camera, so the records 
in the memory must be and are taken similarly to those that 
we make in books." 

" And the soul — ?" 

"Imbibes the one precisely as it does the other. Awfully 
funny kind of an arrangement ; but it's the way that all 
things of this kind are made. 

"And in all such matters, that is in a very large class of the 
phenomena of nature, our confusion or ignorance in regard to 
them arises from one cause, delusion in regard to size and space ; 
through which delusion or complete misunderstanding we lose 
all track of what takes place, and not seeing that the ordinary 
processes with which we are most familiar may take place, im- 
agine some extraordinary ones instead, impossible and absurd. 

" Our estimate of size depends upon the visual angle of the 
object seen, and this varies with the distance of the object from 
the eye, as well as with its real size, and also with the conditions 
in which light passes from the object to the eye, that is with the 
refraction of light. It follows, therefore, that apparent size 
depends on conditions, and is without absolute significance ; 
and therefore may the apparent size of an object be increased 
by a microscope 100,000 times or more; or by a telescope 
1 ,000 times or more. And indeed there would appear to be no 
limit to the different estimate of size possible to vision. 

" Thus a thing becomes infinitely small in appearance, as a star 
when far enough removed, which would appear enormously 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PTNE 303 

large if brought close to the eye. And so because of its 
nature, although from other causes, we are largely deceived by 
vision, in things under a certain size. And as we learn to cor- 
rect the errors which arise from distance, so must we learn to 
correct those which arise from these other causes. 

" That is, we must always remember that a space which seems 
to us infinitely small is abundantly large for untold numbers of 
beings or things to inhabit, subject to laws precisely similar to 
those governing those things which we can see. Thus things 
move about in similar manner and pass each other in similar 
manner. For nature's laws are universal, and this law of 
the way that things pass each other is universal. They pass 
where there is room and when there isn't they don't pass. And 
anyone who does not recognize this deceptive character of vision 
with all the consequences it includes, must remain in hopeless 
ignorance. 

"The old Pine will see that Mr. Hooke described a grapho- 
phone some 200 years before it was invented." 



304 ELLEN OR THE 



xxvr. 

££ r | ^HEN," I said, "Ellen, is it not true, following out what 
*- would appear to be a universal law of production, that 
mind makes the brain, and the brain makes mind?" 

"Yes," she said, "with intelligence, that means with the soul, 
to boss, and never otherwise. The old Pine mustn't be foolish. 
The one great governing, moving, and eternal principle is mind. 
Nothing takes place anywhere except by its fiat, and nothing 
can long endure except under its management. 

"Well, we have seen that certain ones of the bodily organs, 
like the liver or stomach, are used to perform certain functions 
necessary to the existence of the body; that other organs, as 
those of sensation, have little to do with the preservation of the 
body, except to warn it of dangers, but minister to the wants 
of the. soul. In the very different nature of these organs of the 
body, and the very different uses for which they are employed, 
can be again perceived the entirely different character of the 
body and the mind. With his usual want both of good sense 
and of perception, the scientist, fails to see such distinction, and 
talks about thought being secreted by the brain the same as bile 
by the liver. The body may perform its functions, but the mind 
not act at all. For this last takes place by an entirely different 
process, — an educational process, and very similar to those 
which we use in schools ; and it would be as sensible to under- 
take to teach a boy arithmetic by giving him apples, as to sup. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 307 

pose intelligence to .come from a similar cause. The two 
entirely distinct conditions of mind and matter are per- 
haps nowhere more forcibly illustrated than in the nature of 
the operation by which each is sustained in the performance 
of its functions. Food and drink will answer the purposes 
of the physical organs ; but when the mind developes, it must 
be fed with ideas. And this fact alone, that the mind depends 
for its development and action upon educational processes, 
instead of chemical or mechanical ones, is a demonstration that 
it is entirely different from the body. 

"In all cases, perhaps, so far as it connects with material 
conditions, it is a question of reproduction; but in one case it is 
the reproduction of forces from matter, or of other matter of 
very different quality, and in the other a reproduction of ideas. 
Ellen thinks that these ideas appear materially, although 
originally conceived in the mind of God ; for she does not 
believe it possible for anything to be visible to the physical 
eye which does not appear in material form. But instead of 
undergoing a process of disintegration and new combinations, 
such as takes place for all supplies of the physical organs, the 
mind is supplied with ideas, through reproduction within its 
sphere, of forms existing without. 

"And, as we can supply ourselves with libraries of books 
and pictures, so the soul is able to supply itself with libra- 
ries of reference, from those ideas or representations which 
have thus been brought to it. Through nature's great systems 
of reproduction it is evident that the soul, every soul, has been 
able to accomplish this. 

"Ideas, then, are the food of the mind; and there is no 



308 ELLEN OR THE 

other. And beyond any possible question, as Ellen thinks, the 
ideas brought to the soul by sensations, and only by sensations, 
are reproduced and preserved in the brain. And, as Ellen has 
said, this is all done by machinery supplied by nature. Surely 
the old Pine does not doubt the power of nature to make 
machinery of all kinds, and of a construction infinitely su- 
perior to that made by man?" 

"Certainly not," I said. "On every hand we see that the 
works of nature are infinitely more remarkable than those of 
man, and also that those of man are patterned, and always pat- 
terned, after those of nature. Thus, instruments of vision of all 
kinds pattern after the eye, which is far more wonderful and 
complicated than any of them." 

"Ellen has referred to the processes of reproduction which 
exist throughout nature, and to the reproduction of objects in 
the eye ; but it is evident that the books of reference in the 
soul are not the illustrations reproduced in the eye, but repro- 
ductions from these, for the pictures upon the retina of the eye 
remain not, but instantly when these are produced reproduc- 
tions are made from them in the brain, and arranged for con- 
venient reference." 

"Then Ellen thinks that there are substantial records pre- 
served of all the knowledge which the soul has?" 

"There is no possible question in regard to it," she replied. 
" Of this nature is the knowledge of the soul, nor has it any 
other." 

"And are these reproductions of ideas conveyed by other 
sensations than those of the eye? " I asked. 

"Certainly," she answered. "It follows, then, that the in- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 309 

struction of the soul is of a precisely similar character to the 
instruction of the child, only the books and pictures in one 
case are made by nature, and in the other by art. And as 
the child knows not at all arithmetic, algebra, or trigonometry, 
so the soul at its birth knows not anything. 

"And it follows, too, that it would be as easy to teach a child 
any study where there was no child, as to teach -a soul where 
there was no soul. And thus again is demonstrated beyond 
any possible question the existence of the soul ; that it exists 
in every body at birth. Nor is it any more certain that the 
body with its different organs, as the eye, or ear, which we 
can see, exists, than that the soul exists. 

"It is equally demonstrated that the soul is not something 
rising from the brain, like steam from a kettle, or odor from a 
flower ; for of what possible use could the information brought 
by sensations be to such a soul as that? The old Pine will see 
that such a proposition is too absurd for even the most ignorant 
to entertain. Nor is that other favorite hypothesis of so-called 
science, that the soul consists of motions within the matter of 
the brain, any more tenable. For of what possible use could 
the information brought by sensations be to a mythical soul of 
this kind? But without such information no soul has ever man- 
ifested itself. 

"To show the nature of the information which science furn- 
ishes upon this and kindred subjects, Ellen will quote a question 
and answer which she saw in a recent number of the New 
York Tribune : 

' G. A. (Florence, Minn.): What support, if any, does positive 
science offer to the belief in man's immortality? 



310 ELLEN OR THE 

'None; for according to science our personality, in which we are 
chiefly interested, and which consists of self-consciousness and memory, 
vanishes as soon as the concensus of living cells has been broken by 
death. True, science proclaims the immortality of matter, and that, 
incessantly revivified by solar heat, it is destined to live indefinitely ; it 
also teaches the conservation of energy, in consequence of which every- 
thing imbued with vital activity must continue to live forever under 
some form of undulation or vibration, which nothing in the limitless 
space of the universe can ever destroy. But what man wants, what 
religion alone gives him, or what he seeks to ascertain by recurring to 
occultism and spiritualism, is the belief in the conservation of his per- 
sonality, with its self-consciousness and memories, and not that decep- 
tive metempsychosis with its prospects of a future existence in the 
fauna of the graveyard or in some undulations of the ether, which is all 
that positive science has to offer.' 

" An intelligent conception of these conditions' does away 
forever with doubt of the soul's existence. For one might as 
well question the existence of scholars in schools of the world, 
as the existence of souls in bodies. For in each, case the 
means of education are provided and used, nor in either case 
would this be possible unless intelligence was at hand to use 
them. 

"Nature provides all this instruction and furnishes all this 
machinery for the souls of the world, which exist in bodies; 
and man provides similar 'instruction and apparatus for the 
scholars of the world, existing in schools. The old Pine 
wouldn't have made universes this way, would he?" 

" The old Pine thinks he would," I said. " It seems to be a 
very good way." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 3 I I 

14 An awfully good way," she said ; "especially in the country, 
where everything is so delightful." 

" Well," I said, "Ellen certainly has illustrated the incon- 
ceivable folly of supposing that a great system of educational 
processes, including, perhaps, the most marvelous appliances 
in all nature, such as the eye or ear, should be provided for 
souls, when there were no souls ; or that mind should result by 
motions in the brain caused by a lot of pictures in the eye. 

" The old Pine recognizes, too, that Ellen has demonstrated 
the existence of the soul, and its distinction from matter, by 
two entirely different lines of argument, either of which would 
appear to be conclusive ; and yet, because of the vast impor- 
tance of the subject, and the great diversity of opinion in regard 
to it, he wishes Ellen would consider it further from still a dif- 
ferent standpoint, and with it the correlative question of the 
immortality of the soul." 

"Very well," she said, "if the old Pine will tell her what he 
wants." 

"The old Pine thought," I said, "that perhaps Ellen would 
point out the most obvious distinction between mind and 
matter. The old Pine thinks Ellen has referred to this, but he 
would like to have her do so again." 

"Whenever we meet these two principles," she replied, "this 
always is manifest, that mind is the user, and matter the thing 
used. And it would be impossible, as Ellen thinks, to have 
any greater distinction between two things than this. It shows 
them to be opposites in all that that term implies, which, as 
Ellen has shown, includes the fact that the one can never 
become the other. 



312 ELLEN OR THE 

"This quality of matter of being subservient to mind is ob- 
servable wherever matter is observed. We know matter when 
stationary, and when moving rapidly, but neither motion, how- 
ever rapid, or division, however great, changes its general 
character. For in its swifter forms of electricity and light, and 
in its more volatile ones, in which, as Ellen thinks, the models 
of the brain are constructed, it continues to obey the laws of 
matter, and is the thing used, not the user. This, then, is 
not only the usual, but the constant character of matter as mani- 
fested to us. Always we find it subservient to the uses of 
mind, and with the exception, perhaps, of those things which 
have life, without power of intelligent movement." 

"But does not this power of intelligent movement in those 
things which have life suggest such possible power in all 
matter?" I asked. "Certainly Ellen can see that matter is sus- 
ceptible to constant change ; nor does there appear to be any 
limit to its possible changes. For, whatever its essence may 
be, it is susceptible to such changes by combination, and, as 
we know, by such change the quiescent may suddenly become 
explosive, the condensed expanded, or the expanded con- 
densed. How is it possible, then, for Ellen to know the possi- 
bilities of matter, or to say that it might not think. The old 
Pine would admit, else he would be a fool, that it would be 
impossible for the brain to exist, and the wonderful mechanism 
of the human body to exist, except as it had been created by 
intelligence, — he would also admit that the universe, so far as 
we know it, was likewise so created ; for every part of it that 
we know bears the stamp of design, — but the question is 
whether its Maker might not ordain that this wonderful body 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 313 

should think, as well as perform the other functions which we 
know that it does perform. At one place in his Essay on the 
Understanding, Mr. Locke says: 

' But yet, after all, I think I may, without injury to human perfection, 
be confident, that our knowledge would never reach t'o all we might 
desire to know concerning those ideas we have ; nor be able to sur- 
mount all the difficulties, and resolve all the questions that might arise 
concerning any of them. We have the ideas of a square, a circle, and 
equality ; and yet, perhaps, shall never be able to find a circle equal to 
a square, and certainly know that it is so. We have the ideas of matter 
and thinking, but possibly shall never be able to know whether any 
material being thinks or no ; it being impossible for us by the contem- 
plation of our own ideas, without revelation, to discover whether 
Omnipotency has not given to some systems of matter fitly disposed, 
a power to perceive and think, or else joined and fixed to matter 
so disposed a thinking immaterial substance ; it being in respect of our 
notions, not much more remote from our comprehension to con- 
ceive that God can, if he pleases, superadd to matter a faculty of think- 
ing, than that he should superadd to it another substance with a faculty 
of thinking ; since we know not wherein thinking consists, nor to what 
sort of substances the Almighty has been pleased to give that power, 
which cannot be in any created being, but merely by the good pleasure 
and bounty of the Creator." 

"Ellen doesn't think either the old Pine or Mr. Locke very 
wise in such questions or such suppositions," she answered. 
4< For first, in the examination of these things we have many 
glimpses of the impassable gulf which lies between mind and 
matter. This principle we perceive to be universal whenever 
we are able to fully perceive the facts. That is, it is universal 



314 ELLEN OR THE 

in all material conditions visible to us; thus with an engine, 
a boat, a wheelbarrow, or a factory, and indeed every material 
thing, whatever be its function. No material thing can accom- 
plish anything without intelligence to control it, and always 
this intelligence we perceive to be entirely separate from the 
thing. This concerns all things made by man, and many 
things in nature, which, with intelligence added, can be used 
for various purposes. The principle of construction, then, of 
all things, so far as we know, shows the separation of intelli- 
gence from the material thing. This, then, is the law of crea- 
tion with man. Accept the universality of nature's laws, and 
the demonstration is complete, that it is the law of creation 
everywhere. So that it would be as reasonable to suppose that 
a telegraph pole would occasionally speak a piece, as that mat- 
ter should think. But something thinks, and if matter does not, 
there is some other thing which does. 

" Matter would appear to exist both connected with animal 
life and separate from it. And when it is connected with 
animal life, mind is also manifested. But mind is not mani- 
fested to us otherwise, except as the Divine Mind is mani- 
fested in the creation. Organized matter contains the same 
elements as .unorganized. Nor from our knowledge of the 
nature of matter, is there any reason to suppose that matter as- 
sists at all in thinking. For, so far as we are able to perceive, 
all the matter connected with bodies is occupied in the growth 
and preservation of the body. And so, too, apparently, the 
body is entirely designed for the service of the soul. 

" But this, also, is certain : that the soul is connected with 
the body so long as life remains in the body, which would 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 3 1 5 

mean so long as it can use the body. What becomes of the 
soul when the body dies? It is all very manifest what becomes 
of the body; for matter continuously is undergoing changes, 
so that always a thing made of it is in time destroyed, but, so 
far as we know, matter is never destroyed. All that we know 
concerning the soul is that when the body dies, that is, when 
its machinery ceases to work, the manifestation of the soul 
ceases ; the body itself does not disappear except by degrees, 
but the manifestations of the soul disappear at once." 

"And so all the activities of the body disappear at once with 
its death, do they not, Ellen?" 

" Nearly all," she said. "The nails have been said to grow, 
and sometimes the hair, after death." 

"Then in this respect the soul would appear to be an organ 
of the body, would it not?" 

"In its disappearance it acts as the organs of the body 
act; that is, its manifestations cease at the same time those of 
the organs do." 

"And this is probably why Mr. Locke spoke as he did, is it 
not, Ellen?" 

"Very possibly," she said; "but all the conditions can be 
explained by the supposition that the soul is entirely separate 
from the body, but entirely dependent upon the operations of 
the body for its manifestation in material conditions. And 
these assumptions will also explain those other facts which 
Ellen has referred to, including the principle of opposites and 
the nature of sensations. And all facts in any true theory 
have to be explained." 

"But is it not true that some opposites succeed each other 



3l6 ELLEN OR THE 

as the odd and the even, and might not mind here, in such a 
manner as suggested, succeed matter? Thus Ellen knows that 
the oak succeeds the acorn and the acorn the oak; that cloud 
comes from moisture and moisture from cloud; that sound 
comes from vibration and vibration from sound ; and indeed, 
as Ellen has often mentioned, nature operates everywhere with 
circulatory methods. Then may it not be equally true that 
mind makes matter and matter mind ? " 

"The old Pine will see," she answered, "that all of these 
cases which he has mentioned take place with things that are 
alike. It is the law of like coming from like, which is one of 
the important laws of creation. But the law of like coming 
from hke is not that of like coming from unlike. And there- 
fore, again, mind does not come from matter, or the unlike, 
but, following this universal law, comes from like; that is, in 
some way it is the product of mind. 

"Thought is a result of the pictures reproduced in the eye 
by the magnificent machinery which exists in nature for making 
such reproductions. It arises, besides, from the wonderful sys- 
tem by which sound, as well as light, introduces knowledge to 
the soul ; and still another method, that of touch, does the same 
thing. That is, as Ellen has shown, it is the result of instruc- 
tion, carried on under laws similar to those brought into use by 
man for the dissemination of knowledge. In all of this it would 
appear that souls, in whatever they consist, inhabiting bodies, 
are at birth, or at the birth of the body, without any knowl- 
edge, but that immediately instruction begins through the 
sensations and is continued through life. And thus, as a gen- 
eral proposition, all knowledge is obtained ; that is, the soul, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 317 

each individual soul, starts as a blank, but immediately the 
processes of instruction through sensations are begun. In this 
view all knowledge starts with contact, the law in this respect 
being the same in the mental and the physical sphere. But the 
possibilities of education to the soul are not at all confined to 
direct contact by sensation. For, by artificial instruction, 
through books and otherwise, it is brought, or may be, indirect- 
ly in contact with a vast amount of facts which it could not be 
brought directly in contact with. To assist in this is faith, that 
principle which permits us to perceive the verity of things, al- 
though not seeing them, — 'The substance of things hoped for, 
the evidence of things not seen,' — and which Ellen has before 
mentioned. These, with the powers of reason and judgment, 
including conscience, conclude the equipment of the soul." 



318 ELLEN OR THE 



XXVII. 

* * A ND are not all of these things which Ellen mentions 
•**■ material? " I asked. " Certainly the concepts introduced 
by sensations are all material. Thus pictures are material, and 
also odors, flavors, and sounds. The records on the brain must 
be material, and the effects produced by these things not essen- 
tially different from those produced by any material things." 

" Except," she replied, " that, as Ellen has said, there are two 
kinds of effects, which is proof that there are two kinds of sub 
stances to be affected. For there is the effect of matter upon 
matter, changing it chemically or otherwise ; and there is that 
other kind of effect which results in intelligence. Ellen can 
imagine certain material effects, as those of flavor and taste, to 
proceed from the contact of substances, but in all sensations 
there must be something sensitive to sensations ; and this 
something is the soul. Nor is it conceivable that the thing which 
excites, first creates the thing to be excited. As well suppose 
that a movement to enter a sleigh or a house, both creates the 
sleigh or the house, and enters it. 

" Ellen has no patience with any such ridiculous supposi- 
tions, for it is self-evident that nothing of the kind takes place. 
It follows, then, as a demonstration that a soul exists in the 
body. And we have proven that its information is obtained 
through sensation. All information thus obtained it is able to 
use after its own fashion, experience lending dexterity in the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 32 1 

use. That is, it can take the concepts obtained by sensation 
and manipulate them as it pleases, and its ability depends upon 
the number of these it is able to gather, and its skill in using 
them." 

"And what is the nature of artificial education," I asked, 
"as conducted in schools and colleges?" 

"Always," she replied, "artificial processes are similar to 
natural. In this case, instead of the great teacher, nature, and 
the concepts of nature spread everywhere in her marvelous 
book, we have the smaller teacher, man, and the books which- he 
makes. The system of education in both cases is the same, 
precisely the same. That is, through sensation information is 
conveyed to the soul, and stored away in the brain for future 
use. And therefore, again, do we know that souls exist in 
bodies to receive such information." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, if thought is made out of matter, 
doesn't matter think?" 

"Not at all," she said, "any more than a clock thinks when 
it strikes the hours. In striking the hours the clock, which is 
wholly composed of matter, performs a physical function in 
accordance — because it would be impossible for it to do other- 
wise — with the laws .of matter. And so if, by the machinery of 
the brain, thoughts are manufactured out of material furnished 
by the body, or otherwise, only physical functions are per- 
formed by matter entirely similar to those performed by the 
machinery of a factory when it receives wool, or cotton, or silk, 
or any other material, and delivers its goods. For thoughts, 
as Ellen thinks, are the manufactured goods of the soul. Ellen 
never has said that matter couldn't perform extraordinary things. 



322 ELLEN OR THE 

She doesn't know anything which it performs that is not 
extraordinary. Possibly thought and the emotions may be 
the most extraordinary of its products, and possibly not. 
But not the things themselves in any case are the most won- 
derful ; but the function of mind which assimilates and inter- 
prets them. And indeed, so far as we are concerned, this 
is the one great wonder of creation ; for it to us includes 
all the others. Thus the machinery of a clock which tells 
the seconds, minutes, hours, days, and months, and perhaps 
points out upon its dial the phases of the moon, and the 
times of sunrise and sunset, is remarkable and extraordinary; 
but it is all accomplished by the laws of matter, including those 
of motion. But that which makes all this the most remarkable 
is entirely a function of intelligence — that is, the perception of 
what seconds are, or moments are, or hours, or days, months, 
and years, or what the moon and the sun are, and their rela- 
tion to all other things. In other words, the perception and 
conception of existence is the most remarkable. And so with 
thought, or the emotions. That which is truly remarkable is 
existence, of which matter is a part, but a part inconceivable 
without mind, and therefore only remarkable when considered 
in connection with mind." 

"But may not matter be conceived to be a part of mind, 
Ellen?" I asked. 

"It may be," she said, "a manifestation of mind; but, if so, 
it is not the part which thinks but rather a result of thought." 

"In that case," I said, "Ellen becomes an idealist; assumes 
that there is no such thing as matter." 

"Not at all," she answered; "it is only a question of how 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 323 

matter is made — the cause of it — and not of its existence, of 
which there can be no possible doubt. But however com- 
posed, or in whatever way originating, there is no question in 
regard to the distinction between mind and matter, nor of the 
peculiar functions fulfilled by matter, nor yet of the character 
of mind. 

"Thus, if the old Pine paints a picture, that picture is a man- 
ifestation of mind, a reproduction, and may be a very good 
one, and will hang upon the wall all right, and fulfill its func- 
tion of representation, but it cannot paint, and never will paint. 
It might go to school a thousand years and would paint no 
more then than now. Its author might paint, or the person 
whom it represents might paint, or have painted ; but no picture 
can paint, or in fact do anything but perform its functions of 
representation, extension, and decay. 

" The peculiarities of the condition that confronts us, Ellen 
has already pointed out : that the form of mind which reaches 
its culmination in man becomes manifest to us only through 
animal life, and that the gradations of its existence would 
appear to make the working parts of an antithesis from the 
rot mind to the most perfect conditions of mind. And this, 
Ellen thinks, beyond all question is what is taking place. How- 
ever it may be accomplished, a transformation is in progress 
between the material and the spiritual — between matter and 
mind. Already we come in contact with the conditions of In- 
finite Mind, the Over-Soul ; the intellect already grasps the 
conception of God. 

"This ascending scale of life, this expanding condition of in- 
telligence, ends with man upon this earth, but that somewhere 



324 ELLEN OR THE 

— elsewhere — the gradations continue, no one can doubt; for ii 
is inconceivable, as Ellen has said before, that a creation of 
such infinite character as this in which we find ourselves 
should culminate in anything with such great imperfections and 
limited abilities as man. It continues, then, somewhere, beyond 
the limit of our perceptions. And into that somewhere, as 
Ellen thinks, the only possible entrance for us is by death. 

"We have seen that mind in man can operate with material 
things, whether concepts or matter, only by being brought into 
contact with them. This is one of the great and unvarying 
laws of nature. Mind, then, is a thing which in material 
conditions not only is confined in the body, like a man on the 
ocean to his boat, but has no power of action except by contact. 
All things which man affects must come in contact directly or 
indirectly with him, and all concepts with the soul. It is, then, 
not enough that objects are scattered everywhere in the 
external universe; they must be introduced to the soul, and 
the nature of this introduction is the contact of substance, 
whether that takes place by odor, flavor, sound, or light. It 
follows that the immediate sphere of the soul is most limited ; 
that is, the soul has not the power of operating outside of 
the body, but everything which it recognizes, whether knowl- 
edge, pleasure, or pain, is in some form brought to it through 
sensation. And that is what the sensations are for. They per- 
form their part in the gathering of concepts, as Ellen has before 
said, precisely as the arms and the hands perform theirs in the 
gathering of things. Odor and sound are recognizable by the 
soul only when introduced to the brain ; and things are seen 
only when their image may be impressed on the eye. And 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 325 

this can be done only with those things from which the light 
can enter the eye." 

"And in what way is this impression made?" I asked. 

"It must be made," she replied, " as in a camera, upon a 
sensitive plate." 

"And how is that?" I continued. 

" Since the time when Scheele, the Swedish chemist, investi- 
gated the action of sunlight on silver chloride, and Wedgwood 
in 1802 utilized Scheele's investigations in producing a photo- 
graph," she replied, " down to the present time, many changes 
and improvements have taken place. Formerly, minutes were 
required for the exposure ; now only a fractional part of a 
second. 

"One method consists in coating a perfectly clear glass plate 
with collodion or gelatine containing a salt of silver, as a 
bromide or iodide. These plates must be kept in the dark 
until exposed in the camera. When the camera is properly 
focused, the lens forms an inverted image within the camera of 
objects in front of the instrument. The camera being prop- 
erly adjusted, the sensitive plate is introduced and exposed. 
At first no image is visible ; but a part of the salts of silver are 
said to have been changed to sub-salts, as sub-iodide or sub- 
bromide, and the more intense the light the greater the change. 
The plate is next developed. This is done by immersing it 
in a solution of pyrogallic acid, when the picture will appear 
with the lights and shades reversed from what they are 
in the object. If the image is too faint, it can be intensified by 
immersing the plate in a bath of pyrogallic acid and silver. It 
is next fixed in a solution of hyposulphite of soda and thor- 



326 ELLEN OR THE 

oughly washed. This removes all silver salts not acted upon 
by the light, and leaves only those used in the formation of the 
picture. The plate, or negative, as it is called, is then var- 
nished to protect the film from injury. 

"To print from the negative, paper coated with egg albumen 
and chloride of ammonium is dried and sensitized by nitrate of 
silver, placed next to the plate in a printing frame, and 
exposed to light. The image gradually grows dark, and at the 
proper time the process is arrested. The print is next toned 
in a bath of chloride of gold, which keeps it from fading. It is 
then fixed by immersion in a bath of hyposulphite of soda. 
This dissolves out the silver salts unaffected by light. The 
print is now thoroughly washed to remove all traces of the 
hyposulphite, after which it is dried, and the picture is com- 
plete. 

"And so the retina of the eye on which the picture is formed 
must be covered with some substance or substances even more 
sensitive than those of the sensitive plate. And these sub- 
stances, as those of the sensitive plate, are affected chemically 
by the substance, light, thus arranging the lights and shades of 
a picture." 

"And how is the plate prepared for the second picture?" 

"That is all included in the machinery," she replied. "The 
first picture is obliterated and the plate prepared for the second 
almost instantly, although the impression of a picture lingers 
for a perceptible time in the eye, and may be blended with 
another following. Thus, a burning stick whirled rapidly 
enough will appear as a circle of flame." 

"And the cause of this?" I asked. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 327 

"Unquestionably the cause is that the previous picture hasn't 
yet been obliterated. Surely the old Pine didn't suppose it 
could be obliterated in no time? Or did he think that pic- 
tures could be made indefinitely upon the same plate with- 
out the old ones being erased ? If the old Pine ever took 
photographs, he would know that it works awfully bad to 
take two on the same plate. Ellen thinks that in vision 
these things are certain : First, that a picture is made upon the 
retina; second, that it is composed of some kind of substance; 
third, that very quickly, unless constantly renewed, it is ob- 
literated ; fourth, that the eye is prepared for another picture. 
All of these Ellen believes to be self-evident propositions with- 
out which it would be impossible for that to occur which we 
know does occur; for the laws of nature are not only universal, 
but fixed. Time or eternity, call it which you will, is necessary 
for things to happen in, a certain amount of time for each par- 
ticular thing; and it is just as necessary that there should be 
something to make them of, otherwise they wouldn't occur, and 
couldn't occur. It is also just as necessary that in some 
manner, if they stand in the way of other things, they must be 
obliterated if the other things are to take their places. All of 
this is self-evident, but with great difficulty did Ellen find any 
exposition of it in science ; nor does it appear that any was 
made until experiments suggested it, although in all such cases, 
the certain result is readily perceived by the eye of reason, be- 
cause of the principle or principles involved. 

"Nothing is more certain than the universality of nature's laws. 
And yet, scientists are so awfully stupid that, although know- 
ing how pictures are taken by the camera, they fail to per- 



328 ELLEN OR THE 

ceive that they must be taken in the same manner in the eye. 
And so, knowing the use of records, they fail to perceive the 
nature of memory. And this, although much if not all of the 
machinery for the education of the soul is adapted to the pro- 
duction of records. 
" Ganot says : - 

'The choroid is a membrane between the retina and the sclerotic. 
■It is highly vascular, and supplies the nourishment necessary for the 
chemical and physiological processes concerned in vision. On its inner 
surface, and in close contact with the ends of the rods and cones, is a 
layer of densely black pigment cells, which secrete a peculiar yellowish 
purple pigment called the visual purple, and which is rapidly bleached 
by light. It is evidently connected with the act of vision, but its pre- 
cise use is uncertain.' 

"The Encyclopaedia Britannica, in the article on the 'Eye,' 
says : 

' Recent researches of Boll and Kiihne have shown that light pro- 
duces chemical changes in the retina. If an animal be killed in the 
darky and if its retina be exposed only to yellow rays, the retina has a 
peculiar purple color, which is at once destroyed by exposure to ordi- 
nary light. The purple matter apparently is decomposed by light. 
Kiihne has also shown that an image may actually be fixed on the retina 
by plunging it into a solution of alum immediately after death. Thus 
it would appear - that light affects the purple matter of the retina, and 
the result of this chemical change is to stimulate the optic filaments ; 
if the action be arrested, we may have a picture on the retina, but if it 
be not arrested, the picture is evanescent ; the purple matter is used 
up, and new matter of a similar kind is formed to take its place. The 
retina might, therefore, be compared to a sensitive plate having the 
sensitive matter quickly removed and replaced by chemical changes.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 329 

"In all such cases, and in all cases in nature where a prin- 
ciple is known as the cause of certain phenomena, to say 
that the cause of similar phenomena occurring elsewhere is 
not known, is the same as to say that it is not known what 
would happen if a glass of water was turned bottom side 
upward, or if a heavy body was thrown from a tower. Ellen 
knows that the water would fall out, and the body would tum- 
ble down. And so where we have learned what will happen 
from any of nature's laws we know what will always happen 
where conditions are the same. And the converse is just 
as true that cause precedes effect, and that always there is the. 
same cause for the same effect. 

"The old Pine must excuse Ellen for repeating quite a good 
deal when talking to him on these questions ; for they are very 
big questions, and in discussing them it is important to keep 
in mind fundamental principles. For these, as Ellen says, 
pervade every part of the universe : the part in which we live, 
and that part of the part in which we live that we can see and 
understand, which, as Ellen thinks, is but a small part of the 
material creation. This is our opportunity. For, as Ellen 
thinks, every fundamental law in the universe operates in that 
part which we are able to see ; and therefore all the laws of the 
construction of the universe may be brought before our un- 
derstanding, and therefore again is it possible for us to perceive 
how the universe is constructed. 

"Thus, this law of taking pictures is plainly visible, and there- 
fore all these things which Ellen has mentioned must take 
place. They illustrate a good many things, and among them 
this, which is again and again illustrated in the phenomena of 



330 ELLEN OR THE 

nature, the possible tenuity of matter, and the very wonderful 
manner of its operation. But all of this the mind recognizes 
as possible ; for an ocean of light, with its marvelous velocity in 
the movements of its particles, is every bit as possible as an 
ocean of water with slower movements to its particles. Nor is 
it anything extraordinary that a substance necessary for taking 
the picture should be produced in the eye. But any assumption 
that the laws or principles of nature are changed, is at variance 
with all knowledge and unworthy of belief. The one, we know, 
may happen ; the other, we know, does not. 

''There is, then, as Ellen thinks, no question but that in 
the eye is a substance infinitely sensitive to the action of light, 
and that this wonderful thing, vision, results from such sub- 
stance and the action of light upon it; the action of light itself 
being changed by any object with which it comes in contact 
and in exact accordance to such object. And this change 
in the quality of light, — for the change in its action must 
result from a change in its quality, and this probably from 
a change in its quantity, — continues always from the object 
to the eye." 

"And what is light?" I asked; "that is, what is its nature 
and manner of operation, and why does it cause vision?" 

"Ellen can only touch upon that to-day," she answered. 
"This is, perhaps, the most interesting of all physical questions, 
and includes the nature of colors; nor has any knowledge as 
yet been obtained in regard to it, that is at all satisfactory. 
Newton had one theory concerning colors, and Goethe an 
entirely different one, and which, if either, is right, is still 
uncertain. And there has been no attempt, so far as Ellen 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 33 1 

knows, to explain how the soul, through vision, comprehends 
objects." 

"And does Ellen think," I asked, "that it is possible to 
understand all these things?" 

"Ellen thinks it is," she answered. "Some day the old Pine, 
and Ellen must investigate the subject. 

"First, then, in the formation of pictures, we have the sen- 
sitiveness of light to change, and second, the sensitiveness of 
some substance to the influence of light, and all the varying 
influences of light, — that is, all the influences of varying light." 

"But how does light go in all directions from objects?" I 
asked. 

"It is a sea of light," she said, "and it goes to anything in its 
path as the waters of the ocean go, and varies as the waves 
vary." 



33 2 ELLEX OR THE 



XXVIII. 

^ A ND is the character of existence," I asked, "individual 

-**■ or collective ?" 

"Individual," she replied, "in that part of creation which 
we see. And therefore is it certain, from the great principle 
of the universality of nature's laws, which Ellen has so often 
referred to, that this principle of individual existence prevails 
everywhere in the universe. 

" First as to those things which have life. Not only are their 
numbers to our comprehension infinite, but essentially and un- 
alterably they remain separate. Ellen looks at the grasses of 
the field, to us innumerable and each one distinctly separate, 
born so and dying so. She watches the flowers scattered 
through the woods, over the fields, and along the roadsides. 
Each is after its kind, but there is a very large number of 
kinds, and with most marked differences. Ellen cannot mistake 
them — the daisy, 

'Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flower;' 

the clover, both purple and white, reveling in beauty and 
sweetness ; the buttercup, tall and comely ; and all the smaller 
wild flowers, rustic beauties of the fields, or more shyly grow- 
ing in the woods. And then come the flowers of the garden or 
of the house. Every one of the myriads is distinct, each a 
separate creation, timid and wooing, loving and loved. 

"Ellen passes from the flowers to the trees, bushes, and 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 335 

shrubs. Again she finds of the infinite millions each one hav- 
ing individual existence. And she finds the great principle of 
differences everywhere taking place. She looks now to ani- 
mals. Equally remarkable is this principle of individual exist- 
ence, and its correlative principle of differences. Should she 
pass to the more minute of the mineral kingdom, even there 
she largely finds the same system. Shells, perfect in them- 
selves and arranged mostly in families of varying shapes and 
sizes, stones and rocks partaking of these same qualities, 
and each grain of sand representing a separate existence. 
And so, too, with the spheres of heaven, so far as Ellen can 
tell, of infinite number. This is the great system of creation; 
there is no other. 

"The order, then, of all existence is individual existence, as 
the order of all creation is special creation. 

" Does the same individual existence continue, or is it super- 
seded by others? Materially it is superseded by others; that 
is, it disappears. And this, as Ellen thinks, is a demonstration 
that spiritually it continues ; for these two principles are oppo- 
sites, and therefore in all essential properties different. It is 
clearly impossible that something which is entirely different 
from matter should in the very essence of its existence be sim- 
ilar. Ellen has already shown from this same principle of 
opposites that life should come from death as waking from 
sleeping. She has suggested other proofs of immortality, and 
also that there are doubtless far more that have not been dis- 
covered than that have. She will refer to but one more now, 
as it is full time that she returned to her home. That is the 
great principle of Revelation. For, as Ellen believes, the idea 



336 ELLEN OR THE 

of God and of future existence is innate to the soul. It may 
not be innate in fact; but, as Ellen thinks, the perception of 
these great truths is innate in the capacities of all souls, 
and through this principle, in special manner, at proper times, 
and through proper persons, God has revealed future life and 
made known the conditions of its existence. And also in lesser 
force, but unequivocally, He does so constantly to all of those 
who seek Him and strive to walk in His ways. 

"There is no possible question in regard to these facts. The 
universal history of mankind attests them ; and, as Ellen 
believes, they come within the possible experiences of every life. 
But it must not be forgotten that it is impossible to find anything 
unless we look where it is; nor can we realize such promises 
unless we seek them where they are to be found. 

"In the material world a thing does not the less exist 
because we do not see it, but, if it is something fixed, we will 
not see it unless we go where it can be seen. And so, and pre- 
cisely so, in the world of spirit. The truths of mathematics and 
other studies will remain the same whether we perceive them or 
not, but we certainly will not perceive them unless we turn our 
minds in their direction. And it is very possible that many 
will never do this, though, perhaps, all, if they did, would have 
a certain power of understanding them. And thus it is with 
God's promises. Our minds must be turned towards them if 
we would see them. But Ellen thinks the minds of all may 
see them if they rightly seek ; and that in this fact, in the uni- 
versal connection of soul with the Oversoul, there is always 
everywhere present to man, evidence both of the existence of 
God and of the immortality of the soul. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 337 

"In closing, Ellen will quote one of David's beautiful 
psalms : 

' Bless the Lord, O my soul : and all that is within me, bless His holy 
name. 

' Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all His benefits : 

' Who forgive th all thine iniquities ; who healeth all thy diseases ; 

1 Who redeemeth thy life from destruction ; who crowneth thee with 
loving kindness and tender mercies ; 

1 Who satisfieth thy mouth with good things ; so that thy youth is 
renewed like the eagle's. 

' The Lord executeth righteousness and judgment for all that are 
oppressed. 

' He made known His ways unto Moses, His acts unto the children of 
Israel. 

1 The Lord is merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and plenteous in 
mercy. 

' He will not always chide : neither will he keep his anger for ever. 

' He hath not dealt with us after our sins ; nor rewarded us accord- 
ing to our iniquities. 

' For as the heaven is high above the earth, so great is His mercy 
toward them that fear Him. 

'As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our 
transgressions from us. 

' Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that 
fear Him. 

' For He knoweth our frame ; He remembereth that we are dust. 

' As for man, his days are as grass : as a flower of the field, so he 
flourisheth. 

' For the wind passeth over it, and it is gone ; and the place thereof 
shall know it no more. 



33§ ELLEN OR THE 

' But the mercy of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting upon 
them that fear Him, and His righteousness unto children's children ; 

'To such as keep His covenant, and to those that remember His 
commandments to do them. 

'The Lord hath prepared His throne in the heavens; and His king- 
dom ruleth over all. 

' Bless the Lord, ye His angels, that excel in strength, that do His 
commandments, hearkening unto the voice of His word. 

' Bless ye the Lord, all ye His hosts ; ye ministers of His, that do His 
pleasure. 

' Bless the Lord, all His works in all places of His dominion : bless 
the Lord, O my soul.' 

"Doesn't the old Pine think that a beautiful psalm?" 

"It is indeed," I said; "but the mercies that David sings of 
are temporal in their nature, are they not, Ellen ? " 

"Yes," she said, "they would appear to be, but his percep- 
tion of God is most complete, and, as Ellen thinks, with the 
knowledge of God is included the knowledge of our duties, and 
the nature of all existence. For the existence of God is a dem- 
onstration of all existence, as in the greater is included the less; 
and indeed any existence is a demonstration of the possibility 
of all existence, whatever that all may be. For the power 
which is capable of creating any existence which we may con- 
sider, is plainly capable of creating any supposable existence. 
And as the part of existence that we see and know is so great, 
we may well believe that the part which we do not see or 
know is infinite. 

"There is, then, in the fact of present existence, abundant 
evidence of future existence. And, indeed, as Ellen thinks, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 339 

the fact of present existence is a demonstration of future exist- 
ence ; for she cannot perceive how it is possible that a sub- 
stance like the soul should cease to exist. What becomes of it 
at death is a question that in some way must be answered, and 
Ellen believes it to be a self-evident proposition that there isn't 
any conceivable way in which it can be so sensibly answered, 
or, indeed, answered at all, as that it continues its existence. 

"Near the close of the Phaedo of Plato, giving the last meet- 
ing of Socrates with his disciples just before he drank the 
poison, occurs this passage : 

'When he had done speaking, Crito said : And have you any com- 
mands for us, Socrates — anything to say about your children, or any 
other matter in which we can serve ^ou? 

' Nothing particular, he said : only, as I have always told you, I would 
have you look to yourselves ; that is a service which you may always be 
doing to me and mine as well as to yourselves. And you need not 
make professions ; for if you take no thought for yourselves, and walk 
not according to the precepts which I have given you, not now for the 
first time, the warmth of your professions will be of no avail. 

' We will do our best, said Crito. But in what way would you have 
us bury you? 

' In any way that you like ; only you must get hold of me, and take 
care that I do not walk away from you. Then he turned to us, and 
added with a smile : — I cannot make Crito believe that I am the same 
Socrates who have been talking and conducting the argument ; he fan- 
cies that I am the other Socrates whom he will soon see, a dead body 
— and he asks, How shall he bury me? And though I have spoken 
many words in the endeavour to show that when I have drunk the 
poison I shali leave you and go to the joys of the blessed, — these words 
of mine, with which I comforted you and myself, have had, as I per- 



340 ELLEN OR THE 

ceive, no effect upon Crito. And therefore I want you to be surety for 
me now, as he was surety for me at the trial : but let the promise be 
of another sort ; for he was my surety to the judges that I would remain, 
but you must be my surety to him that I shall not remain, but go away 
and depart ; and then he will suffer less at my death, and not be grieved 
when he sees my body being burned or buried. I would not have him 
sorrow at my hard lot, or say at the burial, Thus we lay out Socrates, or, 
Thus we follow him to the grave or bury him ; for false words are not 
only evil in themselves, but they infect the soul with evil. Be of good 
cheer then, my dear Crito, and say that you are burying my body only, 
and do with that as is usual, and as you think best.' 

"At the end of his very able work on 'Natural Theology,' 
— a work the argument of which never has been and never can 
be answered, for it is unanswerable, — Archbishop Paley says: 

'The existence and character of the Deity is, in every view, the most 
interesting of all human speculations. In none, however, is it more so, 
than as it facilitates the belief of the fundamental articles of revelation. 
It is a step to have it proved, that there must be something in the 
world more than we see. It is a further step to know, that among the 
invisible things of nature, there must be an intelligent mind concerned 
in its production, order, and support. These points being assured to us 
by natural theology, we may well leave to revelation the disclosure of 
many particulars which our researches cannot reach respecting either 
the nature of this Being as the original cause of all things, or His charac- 
ter and designs as a moral governor ; and not only so, but the more 
full confirmation of other particulars, of which, though they do not lie 
altogether beyond our reasonings and our probabilities, the certainty is 
by no means equal to the importance. The true theist will be the first 
to listen to any credible communication of divine knowledge. Nothing 
which he has learnt from natural theology will diminish his desire of 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 341 

further instruction, or his disposition to receive it with humility and 
thankfulness. He wishes for light ; he rejoices in light. His inward 
veneration of this great Being will incline him to attend with the utmost 
seriousness, not only to all that can be discovered concerning Him by 
researches into nature, but to all that is taught by a revelation which 
gives reasonable proof of having proceeded from him. 

' But, above every other article of revealed religion, does the anterior 
belief of a Deity bear with the strongest force upon that grand point 
which gives indeed interest and importance to all the rest — the resur- 
rection of the human dead. The thing might appear hopeless, did we 
not see a power at work adequate to the effect, a power under the 
guidance of an intelligent will, and a power penetrating the inmost re- 
cesses of all substance. I am far from justifying the opinion of those 
who " thought it a thing incredible that God should raise the dead ;" 
but I admit that it is first necessary to be persuaded that there is a God 
to do so. This being thorougly settled in our minds, there seems to 
be nothing in this process — concealed as we confess it to be — which 
need to shock our belief. They who have taken up the opinion that 
the acts of the human mind depend upon organization, that the mind 
itself indeed consists in organization, are supposed to find a greater dif- 
ficulty than others do in admitting a transition by death to a new state 
of sentient existence, because the old organization is apparently dis- 
solved. But I do not see that any impracticability need be apprehend- 
ed even by these ; or that the change, even upon their hypothesis, is far 
removed from the analogy of some other operations which we know 
with certainty that the Deity is carrying on. In the ordinary derivation 
of plants and animals from one another, a particle, in many cases 
minuter than all assignable, all conceivable dimension — an aura, an ef- 
fluvium, an infinitesimal — determines the organization of a future body ; 
does no less than fix whether that which is about to be produced shall 
be a vegetable, a merely sentient, or a rational being — an oak, a frog, or 



342 ELLEN OR THE 

a philosopher ; makes all these differences ; gives to the future body its 
qualities, and nature, and species. And this particle, from which 
springs and by which is determined a whole future nature, itself pro- 
ceeds from and owes its constitution to a prior body; nevertheless, 
which is seen in plants most decisively, the incepted organization, 
though formed within and through and by a preceding organization, 
is not corrupted by its corruption, or destroyed by its dissolution ; but, 
on the contrary, is sometimes extricated and developed by those very 
causes — survives and comes into action, when the purpose for which it 
was prepared requires its use. Now an economy which nature has 
adopted, when the purpose was to transfer an organization from one in- 
dividual to another, may have something analogous to it when the pur- 
pose is to transmit an organization from one state of being to another 
state : and they who found thought in organization may see something 
in this analogy applicable to their difficulties ; for, whatever can trans- 
mit a similarity of organization will answer their purpose, because, ac- 
cording even to their own theory, it may be the vehicle of consciousness, 
and because consciousness carries identity and individuality along with it 
through all changes of form or of visible qualities. In the most general 
case, that, as we have said, of the derivation of plants and animals from 
one another, the latent organization is either itself similar to the old or- 
ganization, or has the power of communicating to new matter the old 
organic form. But it is not restricted to this rule. There are other 
cases, especially in the progress of insect life, in which the dormant or- 
ganization does not much resemble that which incloses it, and still less 
suits with the situation in which the inclosing body is placed, but suits 
with a different situation to which it is destined. In the larva of the 
libellula, which lives constantly, and has still long to live, under water, 
are descried the wings of a fly, which two years afterwards is to mount 
into the air. Is there nothing in this analogy? It serves at least to 
show, that even in the observable course of nature, organizations are 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 343 

formed one beneath another ; and, among a thousand other instances, 
it shows completely that the Deity can mould and fashion the parts of 
material nature so as to fulfill any purpose whatever which He is pleased 
to appoint. 

'They who refer the operations of mind to a substance totally and 
essentially different from matter — as most certainly these operations, 
though affected by material causes, hold very little affinity to any prop- 
erties of matter with which we are acquainted — adopt perhaps a juster 
reasoning and a better philosophy ; and by these the considerations 
above suggested are not wanted, at least in the same degree. But to 
such as find, which some persons do find, an insuperable difficulty in 
shaking off .an adherence to those analogies which the corporeal world 
is continually suggesting to their thoughts — to such, I say, every con- 
sideration will be a relief which manifests the extent of that intelligent 
power which is acting in nature, the fruitfulness of its resources, the 
variety and aptness and success of its means ; most especially, every 
consideration which tends to show that, in the translation of a con- 
scious existence, there is not, even in their own way of regarding it, any 
thing greatly beyond or totally unlike what takes place in such parts — 
probably small parts — of the order of nature as are accessible to our 
observation. 

'Again, if there be those who think that the contractedness and 
debility of the human faculties in our present state seem ill to accord 
with the high destinies which the expectations of religion point out to 
us ; I would only ask them, whether any one who saw a child two hours 
after its birth, could suppose that it would ever come to understand 
fluxions ; or who then shall say, what further amplification of intellec- 
tual powers, what accession of knowledge, what advance and improve- 
ment, the rational faculty, be its constitution what it will, may not admit 
of when placed amidst new objects, and endowed with a sensorium 
adapted, as it undoubtedly will be, and as our present senses are, to the 



344 ELLEN OR THE 

perception of those substances, and of those properties of things, with 
which our concern may lie. 

' Upon the whole, in every thing which respects this awful, but, as we 
trust, glorious change, we have a wise and powerful Being — the Author 
in nature of infinitely various expedients for infinitely various ends — upon 
Whom to rely for the choice and appointment of means adequate to the 
execution of any plan which His goodness or His justice may have formed 
for the moral and accountable part of His terrestrial creation. That 
great office rests with Him: be it ours to hope and to prepare, under a 
firm and settled persuasion, that, living and dying, we are His ; that life 
is passed in His constant presence, and that death resigns us to His mer- 
ciful disposal.' " 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 345 



XXIX. 

^T3UT what is existence, or its nature?" I asked. 

*~* "This Ellen thinks," she replied: "that existence is 
mind — universal mind, the mind of God; that all things exist 
in His Being, of which things every part is a thought, and that 
this thought is the essence of the existence of each individual 
thing. 

"And therefore is it that everything represents a concept, all 
of which originate in the mind of God. And thus is it true 
that all things, everything, is created by God. And so, too, is 
it that ideas exist everywhere, for all things are ideas. And 
therefore when God made man did He provide the great sys- 
tem of sensations, by which to introduce ideas to the soul; 
which has not at all the power to make them, nor can use those 
that exist in the universe, as they are entirely too far removed, 
and perhaps otherwise unfitted for its use. 

"For, as Ellen thinks, it is easily conceivable that the soul, 
which readily comprehends concepts as introduced by the sen- 
sation of sight, and is able to use them with great dexterity, 
might not be able to use at all the concepts of which these are 
reproductions, because of their infinitely increased size. For 
the old Pine must remember that the pictures focused in the 
eye, although equally complete with those by which they are 
produced, that is, with the outside universe, are entirely con- 
tained in the very small space of a small part of the eye ; and, 



34-6 ELLEN OR THE 

as we have reason to believe, might be as perfectly contained 
in an infinitely smaller space. Can the old Pine imagine any- 
thing more wonderful than this transformation in size, or in the 
space necessary for their existence? 

"And, as Ellen thinks, from the small might be as readily 
created the large. Nor does she think that there is any con- 
ceivable limit in either direction, but that size in either direction 
is limitless ; and that always, if the relative proportions are 
maintained, a picture will preserve its identity. And thus we 
may see how intimately things are connected with each other. 
For if there is the slightest change in the relative conditions of 
the different parts of a picture, to that extent the picture will 
be changed, and so, too, its harmony, or whole effect, injured 
and perhaps destroyed. 

" And this harmony or relativity is universal, for it is in the 
original design, a part of the thought ; that is, it belongs to the 
essence of things. And from this fact does it become certain 
that all things have the same origin. It would be impossible, 
as Ellen thinks, for this to be otherwise, so intimately are they 
connected. 

"Thus we will suppose a rock, or the concept of a rock, 
itself composed of an infinity of smaller concepts most inti- 
mately joined together, which thus joined form the rock, 
and without which certainly the rock could not exist. This 
rock we will suppose placed upon this mountain. Of neces- 
sity it conforms to its environment, or its environment con- 
forms to it. It is placed upon other rocks, or upon soil, 
and in the mind, where originated the concept of this rock, 
originated also the concepts of its surroundings; and equally 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 347 

of the surroundings of its surroundings. And thus may we 
perceive from the creation of the rock the creation of the earth 
where the rock is placed; then of the heavens in which the 
earth is placed. This requires the solar system with all the 
forces or laws which hold it in place. And these include, for 
all. are closely connected, every other system, and, as is 
believed, the great central point, or sun, about which all other 
systems forever revolve. 

"And so extending into the minutiae every feature of the 
universe is created, including man, including all animals, and 
every tree, and every flower. All are concepts of the same 
Infinite Mind. And thus, as we are abundantly able to per- 
ceive, all things must be created. 

" And then again Ellen sees that whilst every material thing 
in its nature is evanescent, the laws which control nature remain 
fixed. But law is spiritual, the unseen. And thus may we see 
that whilst the essential nature of material things is change, 
that of spiritual is permanence." 

She had again risen and stood lingering for a moment under 
my limbs. Far in the west, from behind the rifted clouds, the 
sun burst forth in extraordinary splendor, and its rays, penetra- 
ting to where Ellen stood, embraced her form and mingled with 
her golden hair. Never had the old Pine seen her look so 
strong and so beautiful. And then she glanced hurriedly at 
the distant valley where her home lay. 

" Behold the setting sun," she said. "Already upon the east- 
ern slope of the mountains the forest is in shadow. In every 
recess these shadows are deepening, and slowly but surely 
advancing into the valleys. But Ellen has had a long rest in 



34§ ELLEN OR THE 

talking with the old Pine, and she will beat them out in the 
race for her home." 

"Good-bye," she added; then lightly as a startled fawn, 
darted from my side and sped into the forest. No step could 
be truer, and none fleeter. Between her and the valley it is 
over three miles, but in less than half an hour I saw her 
emerge from the great forest, bounding over the brush fence 
which separates it from the meadow. Swiftly she still con- 
tinued her course up the hillside, and along the highway, until 
she reached her home, when her step slackened and her eye 
wandered. The shadows were a little longer, but the sunshine 
yet lingered. She turned and looked at me, waving her hand. 
And then I saw her enter the barn, where the horses are, look 
after the cows, feed the poultry, tie up the vines, and fix the 
flowers. Gertrude, the older sister, stood looking on, and 
Edith, the younger, was jumping over all the beds to assist 
Ellen. And thus I watched, as I have often watched before, 
this most wonderful of all homes in the whole world, or a 
thousand worlds, where dwell together the Good, the Beautiful, 
and the True. 



PART II 



THE 
UNDULATORY THEORIES 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



I. 



TUNE again was blossoming above our hills. The great 
Sr winter, with its frozen plains of snow that glisten so beau- 
tifully in the still days beneath the sunshine, or cold and for- 
bidding repel the embrace of wind and storm, — had departed, 
and in its stead the soft, fond zephyrs of the loving summer 
lingered above hill and dale. 

Hundreds of years the old Pine has noticed these changes: 
where the mountains dwell upon the western sky; where they 
extend in rising column at the north, or in long lines melt away 
to the south; or where in the grandeur of beauty and like the 
billowed surface of a great sea they glide to the extreme «east, 
and there in their highest forms reflect the first beams of the 
morning light. 

Watching all the gdorv of this scene, viewing not onlv the 
millions of trees that dot the mountains and the hillsides, but 
also the landscape as a whole, comprising a number of com- 
plete mountain ranges, and diversified with thousands of fields 
and homes, with rock, plain, and river, — a soft, familiar step 
broke on my ear. 

"It is my darling," I said, " the fairest and best of 
women ! Firm is her step and true her heart." 

At this moment the golden rim of the sun was lifted above 
the eastern horizon. At the same moment the pride of our 
valley stepped from the bushes upon the rocks; and, turning, 



4 ELLEN OR THE 

gazed at all the glories of the morning now so rapidly spread- 
ing from sky to earth. 

' Full many a glorious morning have I seen, 

Flatter the mountain- tops with sovereign eye ; 
Kissing with golden face the meadows green, 
Gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy.' 

For many minutes Ellen watched the wondrous scene, then 
turning again, came towards me. A little laugh shook the new- 
born leaves. 

"It's Ellen," she said, "come so early in the morning to see 
her favorite tree." 

"And to make another long visit," I said. " Surely when 
Ellen doesn't come but once a year, she will make the old Pine 
a good, long visit? " 

"Yes," she answered, "if the old Pine does everything to 
please her." 

".And the old Pine will certainly try," I said. " He always 
tries ; for he loves Ellen, and there is nothing which he could, 
that he would not do for her." 

"Well," she continued, "here is Ellen, come to redeem her 
promises. For Ellen told the old Pine that at some time she 
would discuss with him the undulatory theories." 

"Yes," I said, "and the old Pine will be very much inter- 
ested to hear what Ellen has to say about them ; for he judges 
from what she said that she does not believe in them." 

"No, indeed, she does not," she replied; "for Fallen can 
never believe in anything that hasn't the sanction of common 
sense, and these theories are wholly at variance with it." 

She threw aside the light shawl that she carried on her arm, 
and again seated herself upon the rocks near me. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 5 

And now, Mr. Pine,"' she said, " Ellen will criticise the 
theory of sound which has been accepted substantially by all 
the scientists, and for some centuries has been taught and is 
now taught in nearly if not every school and college on earth. 
In doing this Ellen wants to make an apology for herself. For 
she is really ashamed to waste time on a theory of such pre- 
posterous character and monstrous inconsistencies. 

" And first she will quote what Mr. Ganot in his text book 
on Physics, of world-wide circulation, has to say in reference to 
the undulatory theories, showing that he has no faith in them. 
He could not make the admission that he does if he had. 
For he teaches them in his book, and certainly if a man really 
believed a thing he wouldn't say that it is completely 
unknown. The book is prepared for the market, but evidently 
he perceives the intrinsic falsity of these theories, and realizes 
that this, in time, must be exposed. He says (Chapter I., 
page 3, Fourteenth Edition) : 

'In our attempts to ascend from a phenomenon to its cause, we 
assume the existence of physical agents, or natural forces acting upon 
matter ; as examples of such we have gravitation, heat, light, magnetism 
and electricity. 

'Since these physical agents are disclosed to us only by their effects, 
their intimate nature is completely unknown. In the present state of 
science, we cannot say whether they are properties inherent in matter, 
or whether they result from movements impressed on the mass of sub- 
tile and imponderable forms of matter diffused through the universe.' 

"He doesn't mention sound, does he, Ellen?" 
"No," she said, "but he mentions light, the undulatory 
theory of which arose entirely from the supposed analogy of 



6 ELLEN OK THE 

light to sound. That they belong in the same category is 
beyond question ; nor, so far as Ellen knows, does any one dis- 
pute this. Mr. Tyndall, in his book on Sound, page 43, says: 

'The action of sound thus illustrated is exactly the same as that of 
light and radiant heat. They, like sound, are wave-motions. Like 
sound they diffuse themselves in space, diminishing in intensity 
according to the same law. Like sound also, light and radiant heat, 
when sent through a tube with a reflecting interior surface, may be con- 
veyed to great distances with comparatively, little loss. In fact, every 
experiment on the reflection of light has its analogy in the reflection 
of sound. On yonder gallery stands an electric lamp, placed close to 
the clock of this lecture-room. An assistant in the gallery ignites the 



lamp, and directs its powerful beam upon a mirror placed here behind 
the lecture- table. By the act of reflection the divergent beam is con^ 
verted into this splendid luminous cone traced out upon the dust of the 
room. The point of convergence being marked and the lamp extin- 
guished, I place my ear at that point. Here every sound-wave sent 
forth by the clock and reflected by the mirror is gathered up, and the 
ticks are heard as if they came, not from the clock, but from the mirror. 
Let us stop the clock, and place a watch w, Fig. 1, at the place 
^occupied a moment ago by the electric light. At this great distance the 



WHISPERINGS OV AN OLD PINE / 

ticking of the watch is distinctly heard. The hearing is much aided by 
introducing the end / of a glass funnel into the ear, the funnel here 
acting the part of an ear-trumpet. We know, moreover, that in optics 
the positions of a body and of its image are reversible. When a candle 
is placed at this lower focus, you see its image on the gallery above, and 
I have onlv to turn the mirror on its stand to make the image of the 
flame fall upon any one of the row of persons who occupy the front seat 
in the gallery. Removing the candle, and putting the watch in its 
place, the person on whom the light fell distintly hears the sound. 
When the ear is assisted by the glass funnel, the reflected ticks of the 
clock in our first experiment are so powerful as to suggest the idea of 
something pounding against the tympanum, while the direct ticks are 

scarcely, if at all, heard.' 

* * * ■* * * * * * 

'Sound, like light, may be reflected several times in succession, and, 
as the reflected light under these circumstances becomes gradually 
feebler to the eye, so the successive echoes become gradually feebler to 
the ear.' 

"Again Mr. Tyndall says, after giving experiments on 
sound (' Heat a Mode of Motion,' pages 274-275) : 

* Why are these experiments on sound performed? Simply for the 
purpose of giving you clear conceptions regarding what takes place in 
the case of heat ; to lead you from the tangible to the intangible ; from 
the region of sense into that of theory. 

' After philosophers had become aware of the manner in which sound 
was produced and transmitted, analogy led some of them to suppose 
that light might be produced and transmitted in a somewhat similar 
manner. And perhaps, in the whole history of science, there was never 
a question more hotly contested than this one. Sir Isaac Newton, as- 
indicated in our second lecture, supposed light to consist of minute 
particles, darted out from luminous bodies. Huyghens, the contem- 



8 ELLEN OR THE 

porary of Newton, found great difficulty in admitting this cannonade of 
particles ; or in realizing that they could shoot with inconceivable 
velocity through space, and yet not disturb each other. This celebrated 
man entertained the view that light was produced by vibrations, similar 

to those of sound.' 

******* 

i 'The authority of Newton bore these men down, and not until a man 
of genius within these walls took up the subject, had the Theory of 
Undulation any chance of coping with the rival Theory of Emission. 
To Dr. Thomas Young, formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
Royal Institution, belongs the honor of stemming this tide of authority, 
and of establishing, on a safe basis, the Undulatory Theory of light. 
Great things have been done in this edifice ; but scarcely a greater 
thing than this. And Young was led to his conclusion regarding light, 
by a series of investigations on sound. He, like ourselves at the present 
moment, rose from the known to the unknown, from the tangible to the 
intangible.' 

" And so the old Pine will see that if either one of the undu- 
latory theories is proven untrue, they are all proven untrue.'" 

14 But what is the theory which you condemn, Ellen?" 
I asked. 

" It is too silly to explain," she continued. " Let those 
explain it who believe it, if any such there are." 

" But," I said, " Ellen, it will be impossible for us to discuss 
it intelligently without a statement of what it is." 

"It is impossible," she replied, "to give any intelligent state- 
ment of it, for it is too absurd to admit of one. The text 
books say that 

'Sound is the peculiar sensation excited in the organ of hearing by 
the vibratory motion of bodies, when this motion is transmitted to the 
ear through an elastic medium.' — Ganot. 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 9 

'The impression which the mind receives through the organ of hear- 
ing is called sound. But the same word is constantly used to signify 
that progressive vibratory movement in a medium by which the impres- 
sion is produced, as when we speak of the velocity of sound.' — Olmsted. 

" From these definitions — and all text books, so far as Ellen 
knows, furnish similar ones — it appears that the undulatory 
theory cannot be explained with one definition, which alone 
suggests its falsity. For by this theory it is necessary to con- 
sider sound subjective and objective, both of which it cannot 
possibly be. Subjectively, sound is assumed to be a sensation 
produced by what is called a mode of motion ; that is, by the 
mere movement of something. But in discussing sound the 
speed of this movement is spoken of as the speed of sound. 
And hence by this theory a certain kind of movement, 
of a thousand different things, more or less, is sound. 
If this is the theory, why say that the impression which the 
mind receives through the organ of hearing is sound? 
One of the two possibly might be something called sound; 
both of them certainly cannot be the same thing. One may 
believe in realism or idealism, but it is impossible that he 
should believe in both. 

"On another page, Mr. Ganot says: 'The velocity of sound 
at zero may be taken at 1093 feet per second.' Using Mr. 
Ganot's previously given definition of sound — that is, transpos- 
ing, under the axiom that things which are equal to the same 
things are equal to each other — and we have: 'The velocity of 
the peculiar sensation excited in the organ of hearing by the 
vibratory motion at zero, may be taken at 1093 feet per second.' 

"The old Pine will see that there is no possible sense to this 



I.O ELLEN OR THE 

last, except under supposition that the peculiar sensation, etc., 
is an entity with the power of traveling, which at some time 
must exist outside of the organ of hearing in order to travel 
1093 feet in a second. But this is manifestly absurd, and so 
the whole theory, however taken, is absurd and impossible. 
Surely the old Pine must see that the theory is incredible, and 
that it is unnecessary to discuss it further." 

■ "Yes," I said, "the old Pine does see. But as this theory 
is universally accepted in science, he hopes that Ellen will 
continue to expose its absurdities. But is it not true, Ellen, 
that words are sometimes used, by trope or metaphor, with 
double meaning?" 

''Yes," she replied, "that is sometimes done, but always there 
is a primitive and fixed meaning of the word which makes the 
trope possible. Thus, when we say that a man is a fox, the 
word fox is used metaphorically to signify that the man has the 
crafty characteristics of that animal. But, of course, the term 
would not be thus used except as its usual signification is per- 
fectly, understood. .Besides, such use would be entirely out of 
place in scientific discussion. In any proper signification of 
words, the peculiar sensation excited in the organ of hearing, 
referred to, is hearing and not sound, just as a similar sensation 
excited in the organ of tasting is tasting and not flavor, or in the 
organ of smelling is smelling and not odor. Sound, like odor 
or flavor, is the exciting substance. Hearing, like tasting or 
smelling, is the subjective action or result. Any theory that 
does not make this distinction is crude and worthless. It is 
upon its face a humbug. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



II. 

T TNDER 'Copernicus' the British Encyclopaedia says 



u 



' He sought by a comparative study of the various astronomical sys- 
tems of the ancients to evolve from them a single system at once simple 
and consistent.' 

"Thus arose the Copernican system, in which all the planets 
revolve around the sun, superseding the Ptolemaic, in which 
Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun, whilst itself, with 
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, moved round the earth. In this case 
the error of thousands of years' standing, which supposed the 
action of the planets to be controlled by different laws, was 
corrected ; and so Ellen would correct a similar error, of 
equally long standing, which makes the senses governed by 
different laws ; or, rather, assumes that two of them act without 
cause, which places them outside of all law. 

"These senses are touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. 
We know that in order to experience the sense of touch there 
is and must be contact with a substance. It is impossible to 
obtain the result without this. And so in regard to taste; 
there is no taste possible unless there is something to 
be tasted. 

"Next comes odor. And this is so pertinent to the subject 
that Ellen is discussing, that she will quote at length from an 



14 ELLEN OR THE 

article on Odors, by the noted French scientist and writer, Fer- 
dinand Papillon, as follows : 

' Descartes, Leibnitz, and all the great minds of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, believed that phenomena are such interdependent parts of one 
whole, that they require to be explained by each other, and conse- 
quently, that a very close mutual connection should be maintained 
amOng the sciences. In their view, this was the condition of rapid 
advance and intelligent development. The experimental method, con- 
stant to systematic obstinacy in erecting so many barriers between the 
different sections of natural philosophy, has greatly hindered the com- 
pleteness of whatever knowledge we possess as the result of mutual 
interaction among all truths. At this day, such barriers are tending to 
vanish of their own accord, and the science of man in his relations with 
external media begins to show the outlines of its plan and harmony. 
We have before this sketched several of its chapters, and we will 
endeavor now to write another, on the subject of odors. 



'The seat of smell, or the olfactory sense, is the pituitary membrane 
lining the inner wall of the nostrils. It is a mucous surface, laid in 
irregular wrinkles, and receiving the spreading, slender, terminal fila- 
ments of a certain number of nerves. This membrane, like all other 
mucous ones, constantly secretes a fluid designed to lubricate it. By 
the aid of the muscles covering the lower part of the nostrils, the 
apparatus of smelling can be dilated or contracted, precisely like that of 
sight. This understood, the mechanism of olfaction is quite simple. 
It consists in the contact of odorous particles with the olfactory nerve. 
These particles are conveyed by the air to the inside of the nasal cavi- 
ties, and there strike upon the sensitive fibres. If the access of air is 
prevented, or if the nerve is altered, no sensation is produced. Experi- 
ments in physiology, in fact, have settled that the olfactory nerves (or 



WHISPERINGS OK AN OLD VINE 1 .5 

those of the first pair) are assigned exclusively to the perception of 
odors. Loss of the sense of smell occurs whenever the nerves are 
destroyed or injured by any process, or even whenever they are merely 
compressed. On the other hand, it is a matter of common observation 
that impeding the passage of air into the nostrils is quite as effectual 
a way of making any sort of olfactory sensation impossible. Let us 
add, that the region most sensitive to odors is that of the upper part 
of the nasal cavaties. There are, as we shall notice in proceeding, 
considerable differences as regards the degree of sensitiveness in this 
sense of smell, comparing one man with another. But it is a still 
more singular fact that sometimes, without apparent cause, the sense 
is utterly wanting. In other cases it is unaffected by the action of 
certain odors only, an analogous infirmity to that which students of 
the eye call daltonism, and which consists in the perception of certain 
colors only. We find in scientific annals the case of a priest who was 
insensible to all odors except that of decayed cabbage ; and another, 
of a person to whom vanilla was entirely without scent. Blumenbach 
speaks too of an Englishman, with all his senses very acute, who 
perceived no perfume in mignonette. 

' Olfaction is sometimes voluntary, sometimes involuntary. In the 
former case, by an act which is called scenting something, and is re- 
sorted to for the sake of a keener sensation, we first close the mouth, 
and then sometimes draw in a full breath, sometimes a succession of 
short, quick inspirations. Then the muscular apparatus edging the 
opening of the nostrils comes into play, to contract that orifice, and 
point it downward, so as to increase the intensity of the current of 
inhaled air. When, on the contrary, we wish to smell as little as pos- 
sible, the organ becomes passive. We effect strong exspirations by the 
nose to drive out the air that produces scent, and inhalation, instead 
of being performed by the nostrils, instinctively takes place through 
the mouth. 



1,6 ELLEN OR THE 

'Scents and the sense of smell have an important share in the phe- 
nomena of gustation, that is, there is a close connection between the 
perception of odors and that of tastes. Physiological analysis has 
clearly brought out the fact that most of the tastes we perceive proceed 
from the combination of olfactory sensations with a small number of 
gustatory sensations. In reality, there are but four primitive and 
radical tastes — sweet, sour, salt, and bitter. A very simple experi- 
ment will convince us of this fact. If we keep the nostrils closed. 
when tasting a certain number of sapid substances, so as to neutralize 
the sense of smell, the taste perceived is invariably reduced to one 
of the four simple savors we have just named. Then, whenever the 
pituitary membrane is out of order, the taste of food is no longer the 
same ; the tongue distinguishes nothing but sweet, sour, salt, or bitter. 

' It is time now to begin the study of the physiological and chemical 
conditions of smell, and for this we must first inquire how odorous sub- 
stances behave with regard to the medium which separates them from 
our organs. Prevost, in an essay published in 1799 on the means of 
making emanations from odorous bodies perceptible to sight, was the 
first to bring to view the fact that certain odorous substances, solid or 
fluid, placed on moistened glass, or in a saucerful of water, instantly 
act on those molecules of the liquid which they touch, and repel them 
more or less, producing a vacuum. He judged that this method might 
serve to make odors sensible to sight, and enable us to distinguish 
odorous from inodorous bodies. These movements of odorous bodies 
on the surfaces of liquids, of which camphor particularly gives so curious 
an instance, have lately been studied with the greatest care by a French 
physiologist, with a view to establishing a theory of odors. With this 
purpose Liegeois has examined most of the odoriferous substances, and 
has ascertained that almost all of them perform various motions of cir- 
culation and displacement on the surface of water, resembling those 
noted with camphor. Some act precisely as camphor does. Among 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FIXE 1 7 

these are benzoic acid, succinic acid, the rind of bitter oranges, etc. 
With others, motion soon stops, for they are quickly surrounded by an 
oily film which keeps them confined. Some must be reduced to 
powder before the phenomenon takes place. As regards odorous 
liquids, it occurred to Liegeois to saturate very light and spongy seeds, 
themselves odorless, with them, and he then found, on throwing the 
seeds on water, that circulatory and displacing movements took place, 
as with other substances. He concluded, from a series of experiments 
methodically tried, that the motions in question must be attributed, 
not to a release of gas, acting in the manner of a recoil, but simply to 
the separation and rapid diffusion, within the water, of the odorous 
particles. The volatility of substances cannot be admitted to have any 
part in explaining the phenomenon. It depends wholly on the affinity 
of fluids for the odorous particles, and also for those of fatty matter. 
Liegeois found, for instance, that a drop of oil put on the surface of 
water, without sensibly lessening in size, emits an enormous quantity of 
microscopic droplets, which are diffused through the mass of the water. 
Aromatic essences produce a like effect. Though insoluble in water, 
they have a powerful tendency to disperse themselves throughout it, 
and water that receives a very small quantity of the odoriferous prin- 
ciple, in the shape of extremely fine powder, has enough to gain their 
perfume completely. Liegeois's experiments give proof of the most 
diligent labors and of praiseworthy sagacity. Science has accepted 
them with satisfaction, and, after employing them usefully, will preserve 
the memory of their author, taken away in the flower of his age, at the 
outset of a noble career as a physiologist and surgeon. 

' It seemed, to quote his words, as though in these experiments we 
were assisting at the formation of the odorous molecules. Those 
delicate atoms emitted from odorous substances and diffused through 
the atmosphere are, in fact, the very same that impinge on our pitui- 
tary membrane, and give us the sensation of odors. Moreover, facts 



I 8 ELLEN OR THE 

long ago observed display this revealing action, so to call it, of water 
upon odors. At morning, when the verdure is moist and the flowers 
covered with sparkling pearls of dew, a fresher and balmier fragrance 
exhales from every plant. It is the same after a light shower. Vege 
tation gains heightened tints, at the same time that it diffuses more 
fragrant waves of perfume. We remark an effect of the same kind in 
the physiological phenomenon of taste. The saliva serves as an excel- 
lent vehicle for diffusing the odorous principles ; then the movements 
of the tongue, spreading that fluid over the whole extent of the cavity 
of the mouth, and thus enlarging the evaporating surface, are clearlv of a 
kind to aid the dispersion of the odorous principles, which, as we have 
seen, take a considerable part in the perception of tastes. 

' Now, in the phenomenon of smell, air acts in the place of water. 
It seizes the odorous particles and brings them into contact with the 
pituitary membrane. It is the vehicle, the solvent, of those extremely 
subtile atoms which, acting on the delicate fibres of the nerve, produce 
in it a special movement, which translates itself into the most varied 
sensations. Oxygen, and the existence in that gas of a certain pro 
portion of odorous molecules, are the two essential conditions of this 
phenomenon. 

' Such is, at least, the result of earlier experiments, and of those per- 
formed of late years by Nickles. A curious fact, well worthy of atten- 
tion, is the remarkable diffusibility and degree of subdivision exhibited 
by some odorous substances. Ambergris just thrown up on the shore 
spreads a fragrance to a great distance, which guides the seekers after 
that precious substance. Springs of petroleum-oil are scented at a very 
considerable distance. Bartholin affirms that the odor of rosemary at 
sea renders the shores of Spain distinguishable long before they are in 
sight. So, too, every one knows that a single grain of musk perfumes 
a room for a whole year, without sensibly losing weight. Haller 
relates that he has kept papers for forty years perfumed by a grain 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 9 

of amber, and that they still retained the fragrance at the end of 
that time. He remarks that every inch of their surface had been 
impregnated by 1-2,691,064,000 of one grain of amber, and that they 
had perfumed for 1 1,600 days a film of air at least a foot in thickness. 
Evidently the material quantity of the odorous principle contained in a 
given volume of such air is so minute as to elude imagination. 

******** 

•' Odors, to be perceived, must be taken up by oxygen, and borne by 
it to the organ of smell. 

******** 

'The learned and capable author, Piesse, in his work on "Odors, Per- 
fumes, and Cosmetics," says: "Odors seem to affect the olfactory 
nerves in certain definite degrees, as sounds act on the auditory nerves. 
There is, so to speak, an octave of smells, as there is an octave of tones ; 
some perfumes accord, like the notes of an instrument. Thus almond, 
vanilla, heliotrope, and clematis, harmonize perfectly, each of them 
producing almost the same impression in a different degree. On the 
other hand, we have citron, lemon, orange peel, and verbena, forming a 
similarly associated octave of odors, in a higher key. The analogy is 
completed by those odors which we call half-scents, such as the rose, 
with rose-geranium for its semitone ; ' petit-grain ' and neroli, followed 
by orange-flower. With the aid of flowers already known, by mixing 
them in fixed proportions, we can obtain the perfume of almost all 
flowers." 

''Again Mr. Papillon says: 

'To complete these details, it remains to say something of the delu- 
sions of the sense of smell; for this sense, like the others, has its aber- 
rations and hallucinations. The delusions of smell are hardly ever 
isolated : they accompany those of hearing, sight, taste, and touch, and 
are also less frequent than the latter. 



20 ELLEN OR THE 

" And again : 

' The intensity and delicacy of the sense of smell vary in mankind 
among different individuals, and particularly among different races of 
men. While some persons are almost devoid of the sense of smell, 
others, whose history is related in the annals of science, have displayed 
a refinement and range in the distinction of odors truly wonderful. 
Woodward, for instance, mentions a woman who foretold storms several 
hours before their coming, by the help of the sulphurous odor, due 
probably to ozone, which she perceived in the atmosphere. The 
scientific journals of the day relate the account of a young American 
girl, a deaf-mute, who, by their odor alone, recognized the plants of 
the fields which she collected. Numerous instances, moreover, prove 
that in savage races this sense is very greatly more developed than 

among civilized men. 

******** 

1 But it is among the other mammals that we find the sense of smell 
displayed in its highest degree of power and perfection. Among rumi- 
nants, some pachyderms, and particularly among carnivorous mammals, 
the olfactory membrane attains the keenest sensitiveness. Buffon has 
described these animals with extreme exactness, in saying that thev 
smell farther than they see, and that they possess in their scent an eye 
which sees objects not only where they are, but even wherever they 
have been. The peculiarity of scent in the dog is too well known to 

need more than an allusion. 

* ****** * 

' Alexander von Humboldt relates that in Peru, and other countries of 
South America, when it is intended to take condors, a horse or cow is 
killed, and that in a short time the smell of the dead animal attracts 
a great number of these birds, though none had before that been seen 
in the country. Other more extraordinary facts are told by travelers. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2 1 

' What, now, is the chemical nature of the odorous principles in 
plants ? The chemistry of to-day reduces almost all of them to three 
categories of well-ascertained substances : hydrocarburets, aldehydes, 
and ethers. We will endeavor to give a clear account of the constitu- 
tion of these three kinds of substances, and to mark their place in the 
register of science. The hydrocarburets are simple combinations of 
carbon and hydrogen, as, for instance, the petroleum-oils. They rep- 
resent the simple compounds of organic chemistry. As to aldehydes 
and ethers, their composition is rather more complex ; besides carbon 
and hydrogen, they contain oxygen. Every one knows what chemists 
mean by an alcohol : it is a definite combination of hydrogen, carbon, 
and oxygen, neither acid nor alkaline, which may be regarded as the 
result of the union of a hydrocarburet with the elements of water. 
Common alcohol, or spirits of wine, is the type of the most important 
series of alcohols, that of the mono-atomic alcohols. Chemists repre- 
sent it by the formula C 2 H 6 0, to indicate that a molecule of it arises 
from the union of two atoms of carbon with six atoms of hydrogen and 
one of oxygen. Independently of the alcohols, which are of great 
number and varying complexity, organic chemistry recognizes another 
class of bodies, of which vinegar is the type, and which receive the 
name of organic acids, to mark their resemblance to mineral acids, 
such as oil of vitriol or aqua-fortis. Now, every alcohol, on losing a 
certain amount of hydrogen, gives rise to a new body, which is called 
an aldehyde ; and every alcohol, on combining with an acid, produces 
what is called an ether. These rapid details allow us to understand 
precisely the chemical character of the essences or essential oils which 
plants elaborate within their delicate tissue. Except a small number 
among them which contain sulphur, as the essences of the family of 
crucifers, they all present the same qualitative composition — carbon and 
hydrogen, with or without oxygen. Between one and another of them 
merely the proportion of these three composing elements varies, by 



22 ELLEN OR THE 

regular gradations, but so as always to correspond either to a hydrocar- 
buret, or to an aldehyde, or to an ether. In this case, as in almost the 
whole of organic chemistry, every thing is in the quantity of the com- 
posing elements. The quality is of so little importance to Nature, that, 
while following always the same laws, and constantly using the same 
materials, she can, by merely changing the ponderable relations of the 
latter, produce, by myriads of various combinations, myriads of sub- 
stances which have no resemblance to each other. 

******** 

' Such is the chemical nature of most of the odorous principles of 
vegetable origin. But chemistry has not stopped short with ascertain- 
ing the inmost composition of these substances ; it has succeeded in 
reproducing quite a number of them artificially, and the compounds 
thus manufactured, wholly from elements, in laboratories, are absolutely 
identical with the products extracted from plants. * * * An 
Italian chemist, who was then employed in Paris, Piria, in" 1838, was 
the first who imitated by art a natural aromatic principle. By means of 
reactions suggested by theory, he prepared a salicilic aldehyde, which 
turned out to be the essence of meadow-sweet, so delicate and subtile 
in its odor. A few years later, in 1843, Cahours discovered methylsali- 
cilic ether, and showed that it is identical with the essence of winter- 
green. A year after, Wertheim composed essence of mustard, while 
believing himself to be making only allylsulphocyanic ether. * * # 
Nowadays the chemist possesses the means of creating many other 
natural essences. Common camphor, essence of bitter-almonds, that 
of cummin and of cinnamon, which are aldehydes, as we have seen, may- 
be prepared without camphor-leaves or almonds, without cummin or 
cinnamon. Besides these ethers and aldehydes whose identity with 
essences of vegetable origin has been proved, there exist, among the 
new bodies known to organic chemistry, a certain number of products 
formed by the union of common alcohol or amylic alcohol with differ- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 23 

ent acids, that is to say, of ethers, which have aromatic odors more or 
less resembling those of some fruits, but as to which it cannot yet be 
affirmed that the odors are due to the same principles in both cases. 
However this may be, perfumers and confectioners, more industrious 
and wide-awake than chemists, have immediately made good use of 
these properties. Artificial aromatic oils made their first appearance at 
the World's Fair of London in 1851. There was there exhibited 
a pear-oil, diffusing a pleasant smell like that of a jargonel, and employed 
to give an aroma to bonbons. This product is nothing else than a solu- 
tion of amylacetic ether in alcohol. Apple-oil was exhibited beside the 
pear-oil, having the fragrance of the best rennets, and produced by dis- 
solving amylvaleric ether in alcohol. The commonest essence was that 
of pineapple, which is nothing else than ordinary butyric ether. 
There was observed, too, an essence of cognac, or grape-oil, used to 
impart to poor brandies the highly-prized aroma of cognac. The 
product which was then, and still is, the most important article of 
manufacture, is the essence of " mirbane," which very closely resembles 
in its odor that of bitter almonds, and which commerce very often sub- 
stitutes for the latter. Essence of mirbane is nothing else than nitro- 
benzine, which results from the action of nitric acid on benzine. 
Benzine, in turn, is met with among the products of distillation of tar, 
which also yield the substances used in preparing those beautiful colors 
called aniline. Besides the essences we have just mentioned, which are 
gaining an increasing importance in the manufacturing arts, artificial 
essences of quinces are also prepared, and essences of strawberries, of 
rum, etc. All these preparations serve, it must be admitted, to give an 
aroma to the cordials, confectioneries, and sweetmeats, which are so 
largely sold nowadays. In other words, the products of industry are 
constantly taking the place of those of Nature more and more.' " 



24 ELLEN OR THE 



III. 



ii 



THE fact that a 
And vet it Wc 



all odors are substantial is beyond question. 

as at this point that the scientists made their 
first drift from the canons of common sense, by assuming and 
asserting that odor was what is called a mode of motion. 
Thus the celebrated English philosopher and scientist, Thomas 
Hobbes (i 588-1679), wrote: 

' For the finding out the cause of sme//s, I shall make use of the evi- 
dence of these following phenomena. First, that smelling is hindered 
by cold, and helped by heat. Secondly, that when the wind bloweth 
from the object, the smell is stronger j and, contrarily, when it bloweth 
from the sentient toward the object, the weaker • both which phe- 
nomena are, by experience, manifestly found to be true in dogs, which 
follow the track of beasts by the scent. Thirdly, that such bodies, as 
are less pervious to the fluid medium, yield less smell than such as are 
more pervious : as may be seen in stones and metals, which, compared 
with plants and living creatures, and their parts, fruits and excretions, 
have very little or no smell at all. Fourthly, that such bodies, as are of 
their own nature odorous, become yet more odorous when they are 
bruised. Fifthly, that when the breath is stopped, at least in men, 
nothing can be smelt. Sixthly, that the sense of smelling is also taken 
away by the stopping of the nostrils, though the mouth be left open. 

' By the fifth and sixth phenomenon it is manifest, that the first and 
immediate organ of smelling is the innermost cuticle of the nostrils, and 
that part of it, which is below the passage common to the nostrils and 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 27 

the palate. For when we draw breath by the nostrils we draw it into 
the lungs. That breath, therefore, which conveys smell is in the way 
which passeth to the lungs, that is to say, in that part of the nostrils 
which is below the passage through which the breath goeth. For, 
nothing is smelt, neither beyond the passage of the breath within, nor 
at all without the nostrils. 

'And seeing that from different smells there must necessarily proceed 
some mutation in the organ, and all mutation is motion ; it is therefore 
also necessary that, in smelling, the parts of the organ, that is to say of 
that internal cuticle and the nerves that are inserted into it, must be 
diversely moved by different smells. And seeing also, that it hath been 
demonstrated, that nothing can be moved but by a body that is already 
moved and contiguous ; and that there is no other body contiguous to 
the internal membrane of the nostrils but breath, that is to say attracted 
air, and such little solid invisible bodies, if there be any such, as are 
intermingled with the air ; it follows necessarily, that the cause of 
smelling is either the motion of that pure air or ethereal substance, or 
the motion of those small bodies. But this motion is an effect pro- 
ceeding from the object of smell, and, therefore, either the whole object 
itself or its several parts must necessarily be moved. Now, we know 
that odorous bodies make odor, though their whole bulk be not moved. 
Wherefore the cause of odor is the motion of the invisible parts of the 
odorous body. And these invisible parts do either go out of the object, 
or else, retaining their former situation with the rest of the parts, are 
moved together with them, that is to say, they have simple and invisible 
motion. They that say, there goes something out of the odorous body, 
call it an effluvium ; which effluvium is either of the ethereal substance, 
or of the small bodies that are intermingled with it. But, that all 
variety of odors should proceed from the effluvia of those small bodies 
♦hat are intermingled with the ethereal substance, is altogether incred- 
ible, for these considerations ; first, that certain unguents, though very 



28 ELLEN OR THE 

little in quantity, do nevertheless send forth very strong odors, not only 
to a great distance of place, but also for a great continuance of time, 
and are to be smelt in every point both of that place and time ; so that 
the parts issued out are sufficient to fill ten thousand times more space, 
than the whole odorous body is able to fill j which is impossible. Sec- 
ondly, that whether that issuing out be with straight or with crooked 
motion, if the same quantity should flow from any other odorous body 
with the same motion, it would follow that all odorous bodies would 
yield the same smell. Thirdly, that seeing these effluvia have great 
velocity of motion (as is manifest from this, that noisome odors pro- 
ceeding from caverns are presently smelt at a great distance) it would 
follow, that, by reason there is nothing to hinder the passage of those 
effluvia to the organ, such motion alone were sufficient to cause 
smelling ; which is not so ; for we cannot smell at all, unless we draw in 
our breath through our nostrils. Smelling, therefore, is not caused by 
the effluvium of atoms ; nor, for the same reason, is it caused by the 
effluvium of ethereal substance ; for so also we should smell without the 
drawing in of our breath. Besides, the ethereal substance being the 
same in all odorous bodies, they would always affect the organ in the 
same manner : and, consequently, the odors of all things would be alike. 

' It remains, therefore, that the cause of smelling must consist in the 
simple motion of the parts of odorous bodies without any efflux or 
diminution of their whole substance. And by this motion there is 
propagated to the organ, by the intermediate air, the like motion, but 
not strong enough to excite sense of itself without the attraction of air 
by respiration. And this is a possible cause of smelling. 

' The cause why smelling is hindered by cold and helped by heat may 
be this ; that heat, as hath been shown in Chapter XXL, generateth 
simple motion ; and therefore also, wheresoever it is already, there it 
will increase it ; and the cause of smelling being increased, the smell 
itself will also be increased. As for the cause why the wind blowing 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2g 

from the object makes the smell the stronger, it is all one with that for 
which the attraction of air in respiration doth the same. For, he that 
draws in the air next to him, draws with it by succession that air in 
which is the object. Now, this motion of the air is wind, and, when 
another wind bloweth from the object, will be increased by it. 

'That bodies which contain the least quantity of air, as stones and 
metals, yield less smell than plants and living creatures ; the cause may 
be, that the motion, which causeth smelling, is a motion of the fluid 
parts only ; which parts, if they have any motion from the hard parts 
in which they are contained, they communicated the same to the open 
air, by which it is propagated to the organ. Where, therefore, there 
are no fluid parts as in metals, or where the fluid parts receive no 
motion from the hard parts, as in stones, which are made hard by 
accretion, there can be no smell. And therefore also the water, whose 
parts have little or no motion, yieldeth no smell. But, if the same 
water, by seeds and the heat of the sun, be together with particles of 
earth raised into a plant, and be afterwards pressed out again, it will be 
odorous, as wine from the vine. And as water passing through plants 
is by the motion of the parts of those plants made an odorous liquor; 
so also of air, passing through the same plants whilst they are growing, 
are made odorous airs. And thus also it is with the juices and spirits, 
which are bred in living creatures. 

'That odorous bodies may be made more odorous by contrition 
proceeds from this, that being broken into many parts, which are all 
odorous, the air, which by respiration is drawn from the object towards 
the organ, doth in its passage touch upon all those parts, and receive 
their motion. Now, the air toucheth the superficies only ; and a body 
having less superficies whilst it is whole, than all its parts together have 
after it is reduced to powder, it follows that the same odorous body 
yieldeth less smell whilst it is whole, than it will do after it is broken 
into small parts. And thus much of smells.' 



30 ELLEN OR THE 

"Of course we understand that all of this is unmitigated non- 
sense, but no more so than it was when written, and no more 
so than the same sort of statement is concerning sound. It will 
be noticed, too, that the last paragraph suggests a similar 
senseless explanation for the increase of smell, as scientists of 
to-day give for increase of sound by sounding boards. 

"And thus in the definition of smell, the Encyclopaedic 
Dictionary of recent date, a very excellent work, says: 

' Smell is the perception of odorous emanations, the nature of which is 
not certainly known. They may consist of aerial waves, or may be 
aerial particles of the odorous substance. In either case, they are ex- 
tremely delicate ; air containing only a millionth part of hydrogen sul- 
phide, having a distinct odor, and a minute portion of musk will con- 
tinue, without appreciable loss of weight, to render its presence percep- 
tible in a large room for years. These particles must be conducted to 
the nostrils by the air, or no impressions will be perceived. Smell 
exists in all the higher animals. Darwin (Descent of Man, Part I, 
Ch. I.) says that it is of supreme importance to the ruminants in warn- 
ing them of danger, to the carnivora for finding their prey, and to others 
again, as the wild boar, for both purposes combined. Mr. S. P. Wood- 
ward finds it present in the cephalopods and gasteropods.' 

"And thus, too, in Appleton's Popular Science Monthly,. 
May, 1882, a writer, discussing this question, says: 

' The following paragraph is similar to others I have occasionally 
seen going the rounds of the papers for the last twenty-five or thirty 
years : 

'"It is said that a grain of musk is capable of perfuming for several 
years a chamber twelve feet square without sustaining any sensible 
diminution of its volume or its weight. But such a chamber contains 



WHISPERINGS QF AN OLD PINE 31 

2,985,984 cubic inches, and each cubic inch contains 1,000 cubic 
tenths of inches, making in all nearly three billions of tenths of an inch. 
Now, it is probable, indeed almost certain, that each such cubic tenth 
of an inch of the air of the room contains one or more of the particles 
of the musk, and that this air has been changed many thousands of 
times. Imagination recoils before computation of the number of the 
particles thus diffused and expended. Yet have they altogether no 
appreciable weight and magnitude. — Moselefs Illustrations of Science." 

1 More than thirty-six years ago I announced, in some lectures I was 
then engaged in delivering, that there were some facts in the phenom- 
ena of odors and the sense of smell that were incompatible with the 
effluvia or diffusion-of-particles theory ; and I suggested an explanation 
based on the idea of a vibration or wave-motion, and an "odoriferous 
ether" analogous to, if not identical with, that of the luminiferous ether. 

'In the year 1863, in a letter to Professor Tyndall, I submitted the 
thought to him. After quoting some passages from his book, " Heat a 
Mode of Motion," upon the subject of odors, I wrote as follows : f* I 
would respectfully ask if, in the consideration of, or in the course 
of, experiments upon this subject, it has ever occurred to you that odor 
might be as essentially a ' mode of motion' as heat, light, or sound? 
. * * * 'Yhe seemingly unlimited generation of odoriferous par- 
ticles ( ?) by certain substances, without sensible diminution of bulk or 
weight, first led to the conception that, however copiously odoriferous 
particles of matter were disseminated through the atmosphere, the 
odorous property itself was as purely a specific variety of motion as the 
undulations of the luminiferous ether. That this must be the explana- 
tion of the action of the odor-generating force for a part of its route to 
the human sensorium seems to be incontrovertible, for it is hardly con- 
ceivable that the material particles should actually penetrate the mem- 
brane and force their way, as moving bodies, through the pulpy tissue 
of the nerves to the seat of sensation ■ but that through that portion of 



32 ELLEN OR THE 

their career, at least, their power is propagated by wave-like motions 
analogous to those of heat and sound." 

' Professor Tyndall did me the honor to answer my letter, but not to 
indorse my view, except in a very faint and qualified manner. Never- 
theless, reflection and added experience have only gone to confirm me 
in the correctness of it, and I venture to predict that before many years 
it will be as much an accepted fact of science as the undulatory, 
luminiferous-ether theory now is. 

' In the case given above the entire space of the chamber is thoroughly 
impregnated with the perfume as much as if it were an absolute solid of 
odor. And yet these " particles," so profusely diffused through the 
room, are wafted away, and their places supplied by new emissions from 
the undiminished "grain," "many thousands of times" every year with- 
out appreciable "sensible diminution of its volume or weight," or pun- 
gency. This is an obvious impossibility upon any theory of molecular 
or atomic diffusion. The assumption of immense diffusibility and 
vastness of inter-particular spaces would only enhance the difficulty, for 
the odor spans the spaces — is as absolutely continuous as if the par- 
ticles were in actual contact. That is, in the given space, the chamber, 
anywhere within the limits of the odor, there is no place where it is not. 
This actio in distans implies ethereal motion — vibration — between the 
particles. 

' According to this view the odoriferous bodies, or their molecules, 
have no more to do (in the sense of physical impact) in producing the. 
sensation of smell than a luminous body — a candle or the sun — has to 
do (by impact) with the sensation of light. There is corporeal impact 
or touch in neither case. Of course, with each molecule as a center of 
activity, the effect will be more pronounced at the immediate surface 
(as with all radiant energies) than at any distance. And, undoubtedly, 
particles of disintegrating, odorous matter are often brought in contact 
with the Schneiderian membrane ; but the sensation of that impact, if 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 33 

there be any, would be of touch, not of smell, as surely as that, from 
that point of contact to the sensorium, the effect or influence is con- 
veyed by a vibration — a wave-motion in the "fluid" of the nerve- 
duct — as the undulations of the luminiferous ether are propagated 
along the course of the optic nerve to the seat of sensation, where they 
are translated into light and color. But, if, for any portion of the dis- 
tance between the internal sense and the fragrant body, the odor, like 
light, is but a motion, it is safe to assume it for all. The analogy of 
this mode of odors to that of light and sound is something in its favor.' 

" In this article we have another illustration of the folly of 
ignorance, very similar and perhaps equal to that of Huyghens 
and Dr. Young in their theory of light. 

" Of the senses, there remain only hearing and sight. 
Unable to weigh the substances, sound and light, with either a 
hay-scale or a balance, the scientist denies their existence. 
He might as well deny the existence of the spheres and the 
mountains because he cannot weigh them with his scales." 

"But," I said, "such things as these last he estimates the 
weight of with the aid of mathematics, does he not?" 

"Yes," she replied, "he invents a scale of the mind for such 
emergency ; and Ellen thinks he would better invent such for 
this other emergency, where things are too small and too light 
to be weighed by the contrivances of man, which, at the best, as 
Ellen thinks, can weigh but few things of those which exist in 
the universe. But now again the scientist prates about what 
he calls modes of motion." 

"And what are these, Ellen?" I asked. 

" Infinite folly, as announced by science, the serious concep- 
tion of which would be possible only after one has surrendered 



34 ELLEN OR THE 

all his wits. For the assumption is not only that nature in this 
wonderful work of creation follows no system ; but also that 
something is got out of nothing. For no one, so far as Ellen 
knows, claims that sound exists in particles of air when they 
lie quiescent, if ever they do so lie, any more than that odor so 
exists. Although the scientist claims that, when moved in a 
certain manner, this result is obtained through them. And so 
these same scientists claim that a similar result is obtained from 
the movement of the particles of a thousand different materials, 
such as iron, steel, brass, etc., — indeed, the particles of all 
elastic bodies. The old Pine must beware of the scientists, for 
they are very foolish people." 

"Yes," I said, "the old Pine sees how readily they follow 
the paths of folly." 

"Yes, indeed," she said. "For although the theory as to 
the sense of smell has been abandoned, because demonstrated 
to be untenable, they hasten to assume a similar one for the 
two remaining senses, — hearing and sight. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FINE 35 



n POUND is 
^ thinks t 



IV. 



produced by contact, or shock. And Ellen 
the contact of any two particles will produce 
it. For the microphone is an instrument which magnifies 
sound to the ear, as a microscope magnifies size to the eye, 
and with it can be heard the step of a fly. Thus Ganot says 
in his Physics : 

'The walking of a fly on the base suggests the stamping of a horse; 
the scratching of a quill, the rustling of silk, the beating of the pulse 
are perceived in the telephone at a distance of a hundred miles from 
the source of sound ; while a drop of water falling upon the base has a 
loud, cracking sound.' 

"From which it would seem to follow that any motion may 
produce a sound ; that is, that any contact of two things 
makes sound. For, if the step of a fly makes sound, we may 
believe that the contact of any two particles, however infini- 
tesimal and light, makes sound. It follows that sound, as inter- 
preted to us, is dependent more upon our capacity of hearing 
than upon the thing itself; for the thing itself would seem to 
exist everywhere and always, being the result of motion, which 
exists everywhere and always. So that Ellen can see that the 
music of the spheres need not 'be a myth to all beings, but 
might be and probably is to some — whose sense of hearing is 
ritted for it — a beautiful harmony. 

"And it follows, too, as Ellen thinks, that the mediums 



36 ELLEN OR THE 

which carry sound to us are not the only mediums which carry 
sound, but simply the only ones which carry it to us, and that 
the glory of sound equally with light extends over the 
universe." 

"But Ellen wouldn't always want sound, would she?" 
I asked. 

" And why not? " 

"Why," I said, "it would become monotonous, would it 
not? and disagreeable?" 

" Ellen thinks not," she replied ; "certainly not any more than 
light. Variety has been called the spice of life, and in variety 
doubtless there is much pleasure, as in the variety of light and 
darkness, or of sound and silence. But Ellen thinks that the 
roar of the ocean is always agreeable, and so the murmurings 
of a mountain stream, or the whisperings of the old Pine. 
Sound especially appeals to the intelligent, and the greater the 
intelligence the more does it appeal. For those things which we 
see are not the more pervaded with beauty than those things 
which we hear. And Ellen can well conceive of a world of 
harmony, as constant, beautiful, and glorious as a world 
of light. 

"Motion then causes collision, from which results vibration 
and sound. Does sound make vibration, or vibration sound? 
They are certainly intimately connected ; for the character of 
sound is indicated by vibration. Thus the sound is high or 
low, according to the number of vibrations each second, the 
high sounds being accompanied with increased frequency of 
vibrations, and always the same vibration is connected with the 
same sound. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 39 

"And what is vibration?" I asked. 

11 It is the reciprocal movements of a body, or of the particles 
of a body," she replied. "The text books say it is a motion 
to and fro, or to or fro, and do not attempt to explain its ulti- 
mate cause. Its immediate cause, as Ellen has said, is colli- 
sion, and any collision, as Ellen thinks, causes it." 

"But why should collision cause it?" 

"The only possible explanation that Ellen can see is that 
collision produces or arouses into action a substance which 
causes the vibration. This may be sound, or it- may be some 
other substance. The collision of inelastic bodies, as cotton or 
wool, does not produce much sound or vibration. Mr. Newton 
ascribed the action of electric bodies to an elastic fluid. 

"Ellen thinks that all motion, caused by material things, 
comes from pressure. That all pressure of elastic bodies 
creates or brings into action elastic force ; and as all bodies are 
somewhat elastic, all pressure either makes or arouses some 
elastic force." 

"But Ellen doesn't think that all motion caused by pressure 
is elastic force? " 

"No," she said. "Any pressure makes motion by making 
or releasing, as Ellen thinks, a substance having unbalanced 
motion. That this substance enters any body with which it is 
in contact, or perhaps is created in the body pressed, causing 
it to move, or carrying it, provided there is carrying power 
enough created to do this. So Ellen thinks that all motion is 
progressive; that it enters into a thing, into each part or par- 
ticle or molecule of a body, until it has entered into all the 
molecules, when the body moves. But the body does not 



40 ELLEN OR THE 

move until motion has so entered into all the molecules. Thus, 
if we push a train of cars, the train does not move at once, but 
only by degrees, as the motion has time to enter it. And so 
when a bullet is fired through a pane of glass, it cuts a round 
hole, without otherwise breaking the glass, because it goes 
through too quickly to allow the motion to spread into the 
glass. So Ellen thinks when you pull a wagon or anything else, 
it will not move until motion has had time to enter into it, 
and that always, however caused, the principle of motion 
has to take possession of a body, before a body will move. 
And as a body will not float until there is water enough to float 
it, so Ellen thinks a body will not move until the necessary 
amount of motion to move it has entered it ; and that the 
motion is just as much material as the water, only that as we 
approach that domain where matter appears as force, we more 
nearly approach matter in its essence, where motion is active 
because unbalanced. Thus, as Ellen has said before, dynamite 
or any explosive is composed of matter. A blow disunites it, 
and a great amount of motion, in the form of expanding gas, 
is released. And thus elastic force is one kind of moving 
matter. How many other kinds there may be she does not 
know. Gravitation is another kind ; and Ellen can well see 
that there may be many different kinds, with many rates of 
speed. Indeed, again before her, as everywhere in nature, she 
beholds another road leading to the infinite." 

"But what does Ellen mean," I asked, "by the necessary 
amount of motion to move a body? Would not the slightest 
amount of unbalanced motion, added to a body at rest, 
move it? " 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 4 1 

"Ellen meant enough to overcome friction, or any other 
opposing force which might exist. Could we imagine a body 
at rest, where no such opposing force could act, the slightest 
unbalanced force added would cause it to move." 

"And Ellen thinks all unbalanced forces are moving matter?" 

"She has no doubt of it; and therefore if a body does not 
move, it must be because the motions in the material of which 
it is composed are in equilibrium. Then will it move as soon 
as enough unbalanced motion enters into it, and in the direc- 
tion that this motion tends." 

"Hasn't Ellen very original ideas about motion?" 

"How else can it be explained?" she asked. 

"The old Pine supposed," I said, "that motion was a 
mystery." 

"And so it is a mystery," she said; "all things are a mys- 
tery. But Ellen doesn't want to have to entertain too many 
mysteries ; nor is there necessity. One material is enough for 
the creation of things, including the motion. 

"For motion separated from matter is inconceivable. But, 
if not separable, it is a part of matter, and hence of necessity 
enters into the combinations of matter. Certainly the old Pine 
supposes that matter combines with other matter to make 
things, doesn't he?" 

"Why, yes," I said; "the old Pine doesn't know of any 
other way in which things are made." 

"And there is no other," she said. "And thus motion, itself 
matter, passes through matter, as a stream passes through the 
meadows, or a ball through the air, or an elephant, or a bird, 
or a cloud, or one of the innumerable things which we call 



42 ELLEN OR THE 

small, because it may take a microscope which magnifies one 
hundred thousand times to see it. This thing matter in 
its existence is infinite, sustained in some way, as Ellen thinks, 
and has said before, by nature's circulatory methods, in which 
there is neither beginning nor end. Surely the old Pine doesn't 
think there is any end to a circle?" 

"No," I said, "though he thinks perhaps there may have 
been, at some time, an end to it, just as there are ends to a 
hoop before it is welded." 

" But Ellen doesn't think there is any end in nature's circu- 
latory methods. Nor does she see how it would be possible 
for the creation to exist without such methods. But these 
introduce no change in the way of making things. Constantly 
matter changes, as a fluid differs from a solid, and such 
differences continue to take place indefinitely, as Ellen 
thinks, and by a circulatory method, but always it is 
the same matter, and always the law of its use is combination 
in different proportions. And it is because of the great variety 
in the material that such a great variety of things can be made. 
And so we have solid matter and fluid matter, gaseous matter 
and radiant matter, and Ellen knows not what form of 
matter may lie beyond these in either direction. This, 
then, only, we see, that the changes of matter are many, but 
that all things made from it are equally substantial. In this 
respect all things are alike, and must be. Otherwise some- 
thing would have to become nothing. That is, matter in its 
changes would have to become nothing. Does the old Pine 
think that a snowflake is less material, and in that sense less 
substantial, than a mountain?" 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 43 

"No," I said, "it is also composed of matter. But it 
doesn't weigh as much, or last as long." 

"But it can float through the air," she replied, "or lodge 
on Ellen's hat, to much better advantage. Mountains wouldn't 
be at all good for those purposes. Then the old Pine 
mustn't forget that everything in the material universe is 
made by the same law. And there are lots of different things. 
And then nature has such a tremendous system of differences, 
that no two things, as Ellen thinks, are ever exactly alike. No 
two persons, no two snowflakes, no two sounds. But Ellen 
knows that all things come from nature's great laboratory, and 
are formed by the changes in matter, quality and quantity. 
We will suppose, then, that that kind of matter which 
we know as radiant matter, succeeds gaseous matter, as the 
latter succeeds liquid. And so by these changes of matter, in 
a manner purely logical, we can account for those most 
remarkable phenomena of nature, — sound, light, heat, color, 
magnetism, and electricity. 

"This thing motion, then, as Ellen thinks, is a property 
or phase of matter. And, therefore, whenever motion passes, 
a substance passes ; or, wherever there is motion, there is 
matter. 

"Upon this subject of the homogeneity of motion and matter, 
Ellen has recently met with the following quotations : 

' Force is inseparable from matter, is one of its eternal indwelling 
properties.' — Moleschott. 

' Fundamentally, as is readily seen, there exists neither force nor 
matter. Both are abstractions of things, cuch as they are, looked at 



44 ELLEN OR THE 

from different standpoints. They complete and presuppose each other. 
Isolated, they are meaningless.' — Dubois Raymond. 

'As we can think of no force without a material substratum, so we 
know of no matter which is not connected with a number of forces.' — 
F Mohr. 

' Force without matter is not a reality, and both by their union have 
made the world and all its phenomena.' — Ph. Spiller. 

'We know of no matter which does not possess force, and on the 
other hand we know of no forces which are not joined to matter.' — 
Haeckel. 

'To regard matter as passive, and to suppose a force working on it 
from without, is so grave an error that it would not be possible to fall 
into it, if inborn and mystical fancies did not cloud the mind. Matter 
and force, like force and matter, are no separable entities, but different 
conditions of one and the same thing.' — F. Vignoli. 

' Matter and force are separable only in thought ; in reality they are 
one.' — A. Mayer. 

'We must hold firmly to the principle that matter and force are 
indivisibly joined together, so that force without matter has no 
independent existence.' — S. Cornelius. 

' It is apparent that all attempts to isolate forces from matter, and 
vice versa, are only one-sided abstractions, depending on the notion 
that force and matter may be found in Nature as distinct entities, 
because in speech they are distinct words.' — Weis. 

'The first and last word of Science will always be the indivisible 
union between or the identity of force and matter.' — A. Lefevre. 

"Dr. Guyot, the eminent scientist and philosopher, is thus 
quoted in the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical 
Magazine, Vol. 41 : 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 45 

' Matter has only one property — namely, movement. Movement can 
only exhibit itself to our senses and to our spirit of induction through 
matter and in matter. And, reciprocally, matter is only perceptible to 
our senses and comprehensible to our minds by its movements. Move- 
ment is inherent in and essential to the smallest atoms, as well as to the 
greatest material systems. In the whole universe we cannot discover a 
single particle of matter which is in absolute rest. Matter and move- 
ment are two creations of the same principle ; they are consubstantial, 
and accordingly proportional to one another. 

' The first notion which we can have of motion cannot arise from the 
infinitely small molecules of bodies, because they escape the impression- 
ability of our senses. They reach us, therefore, from the change of 
place effected under our eyes by bodies themselves. Hence motion 
has been defined as the motion of a body from one point of space to 
another. In order that this definition might be exact, it would be nec- 
essary to say " motion is the passage of bodies and atoms from one 
point of space to another," because a particle, a molecule which we can 
neither see nor touch, may also change place in the body of which it 
forms part, and such is clearly a motion identical in principle with the 
motion of bodies. The difference of the two motions is only relative ; 
the one is exterior to, the other is interior, in the body. But, wonder- 
ful to relate, observation of all the phenomena of nature shows that they 
transform themselves the one into the other, and are thus mutually 
connected and complementary. The more of exterior motion a body 
accomplishes, the less is there of internal motion, and inversely. In 
other words, the same quantity of matter always possesses the same 
amount of motion. 

' The inertia of matter is therefore an error. " What does it sig- 
nify?" say the learned who are more mechanicians than philosophers; 
"if the hypothesis of inertia permits us to calculate all the facts of 
equilibrium of motion and of force which occur on the surface of the 



46 ELLEN OR THE 

earth, or rather in our physical and mechanical operations, that is all 
we want. Whether an hypothesis be true or false, if it be in accord 
with facts, if it be a sure guide for practical questions, we call it true." 
' I grant that a mechanic or practical man may hold such language ; 
but they who feel the importance of truth, they who understand that its 
quest is the most beautiful mission of the human mind, and that its dis- 
covery and enunciation infallibly guide humanity in the path of moral 
and material progress, such, I say, will never admit that a false hypoth- 
esis can have the same value as a true one, they will never allow that 
the atmospheric vacuum is as well explained by the horror of nature as 
by the weight of the atmospheric column ; and yet these two explana- 
tions express equally well the same fact. Inertia is an hypothesis as 
little refined as that of the horror of a vacuum ; it explains nothing, and 
stereotypes error in face of the most brilliant truths. Does inertia ex- 
plain the motion of the heavenly bodies? Does it explain the motions 
of animals? No. But the sidereal systems comprehend all known 
matter ; and animal organizations form the last term of material com- 
binations. Inertia therefore remains impotent in regard to the sponta- 
neous phenomena of the one or the other kind ; between the alpha and 
omega of the world it only claims a puny territory, namely the relative 
movement and rest of bodies in equilibrium amongst themselves in a 
system full of life.' 

"Ellen might add many more such quotations, but these 
would appear to show that Mind naturally recognizes the fact 
that motion and matter are inseparably united, and together 
form force 

"Motion may emanate from mind or matter. But as Ellen 
has before said, in the material world motion is only continued, 
so far as we know, through contact. That is, it is only by 
being pushed or pulled that one material thing is moved by 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 47 

another. Any idea of attraction must resolve itself into this. 
Thus Mr. Newton held.* And among recent writers it is well 
explained by Mr. Lodge, one of the most eminent of living 
physicists, and considered to be perhaps the highest authority 
in electricity, who says : 

' Now if there is one thing with which the human race has been 
more conversant from time immemorial than another, and concerning 
which more experience has been unconsciously accumulated than 
about almost anything else that can be mentioned, it is the action of 
one body on another ; the exertion of force by one body upon another, 
the transfer of motion and energy from one body to another ; any kind 
of effect, no matter what, which can be produced in one body by means 
of another, whether the bodies be animate or inanimate. The action 
of a man in felling a tree, in thrusting a spear, in drawing a bow ; the 
action of the bow again on the arrow, of powder on a bullet, of a horse 
on a cart ; and again, the action of the earth on the moon, or of a 
magnet on iron. Every activity of every kind that we are conscious of 
may be taken as an illustration of the action of one body on another. 

' Now I wish to appeal to this mass of experience, and to ask, is not 
the direct action of one body on another across empty space, and with 
no means of communication whatever, is not this absolutely unthink- 
able? We must not answer the question off-hand, but must give it due 
consideration, and we shall find, I think, that wherever one body acts 
on another by obvious contact, we are satisfied and have a feeling that 
the phenomenon is simple and intelligible ; but that whenever, one 
body apparently acts on another at a distance, we are irresistibly im- 
pelled to look for the connecting medium. 

* If a marionette dances in obedience to a prompting hand above it, 
any intelligent child would feel for the wire, and if no wire or anything 

* See p. 90. 



48 ELLEN OR THE 

corresponding to it was discovered, would feel that there was some- 
thing uncanny and magical about the whole thing. Ancient attempts 
at magic were indeed attempts to obtain results without the 
trouble of properly causing them, to build palaces by rubbing rings or 
lanterns, to remove mountains by a wish instead of with the spade and 
pickaxe, and generally to act on bodies without any real means of 
communication ; and modern disbelief in magic is simply a statement 
of the conviction of mankind that all attempts in this direction have 
turned out failures, and that action at a distance is impossible. 

1 If a man explained the action of a horse or a cart by saying that 
there was an attraction between them varying as some high direct 
power of the distance, he would not be saying other than the truth — 
the facts may be so expressed — but he would be felt to be giving a 
wretchedly lame explanation, and any one who simply pointed out the 
traces would be going much more to the root of the matter. Similarly 
with the attraction of the magnet for a distant magnetic pole. To 
say that there is an attraction as the inverse cube of the distance 
between them is true, but it is not the whole truth; and we should be 
obliged to any one who will point out the traces, for traces we feel 
sure there are. 

' If any one tries to picture clearly to himself the action of one body 
on another without any medium of communication whatever, he must 
fail.- A medium is instinctively looked for in most cases; and if not 
in all, as in falling weights or magnetic attraction, it is only because 
custom has made us stupidly callous to the real nature of these forces. 
******** 

■ R.emember, then, that whenever we see a thing being moved we 
must look for the rope ; it may be visible or it may be invisible, 
but unless a thing is either pushed or pulled there can be no action. 
And if you further consider a pull it resolves itself into a push ; to pull 
a thing toward you, you have to put your finger behind it and push ; 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 49 

a horse is said to pull a cart, but he is really pushing at the collar; 
an engine pushes a truck by means of a hook and eye ; and so on. 

* There is still the further very important and difficult question as to 
why the parts hang together, and why when you push one part the rest 
follows. Cohesion is a very striking fact, and an explanation of it is 
much to be desired. * * * 

1 There must be contact between bodies before they can directly act 
on each other ; and if they are not in contact with each other and 
yet act, they must both be in contact with some third body which is 
the medium of communication, the rope.' 



50 ELLEN OR THE 



V. 

^ A ^^ what is elasticity, Ellen?" I asked. 

-** "It is used technically," she replied, "to denote a 
property of bodies; that of resuming their original form or 
volume when the force altering it ceases to act." 

" And does it not mean the force that does this?" 

"It is often used to mean such force, and Ellen hardly sees 
the necessity of the other use, but as the former use has long 
obtained, and as the words elastic force are frequently used for 
the force operating, it would seem to be best to make the dis- 
tinction general. And in talking with the old Pine, Ellen will 
do this." 

" And do not the scientists always use the word with the 
same signification?" 

"Not at all," she answered; "they use it with several 
significations." 

"And why do they do this?" 

" Presumably because they do not know any better. As 
Ellen thinks, they don't know half of the time what they are 
talking about. She doesn't think the ordinary scientist has 
any exact idea about this thing elasticity. Nor does she think 
that a single one of the whole of them has any intelligent idea 
of what they profess to believe in undulatory theories. The 
trouble with them is that there are so man}' of them, and they 



And are they all ignorant?" I asked. 




. 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 53 

"All that Ellen has yet heard from," she replied, "though of 
course there is a difference in degree. 

11 Lord Kelvin, in his article on Elasticity in the British Ency- 
clopaedia, says: 

1 Elasticity of matter is that property in virtue of which a body requires 
force to change its bulk or shape, and requires a continued applica- 
tion of the force to maintain the change, and springs back when the 
force is removed, and, if left at rest without the force, does not remain 
at rest except in its previous bulk and shape. The elasticity is said to 
be perfect when the body always requires the same force to keep it at 
rest in the same bulk and shape and at the same temperature through 
whatever variations of bulk, shape, and temperature it be brought. A 
body is said to possess some degree of elasticity if it requires any force 
to keep it in any particular bulk or shape.' 

"Chambers' Encyclopaedia says: 

1 When an external force acts upon a solid body, it produces at first 
slight alterations in the relative positions of the particles ; and if before 
these alterations exceed a certain limit, the force ceases to act, the par- 
ticles return to their former position, and the disfigurement disap- 
pears. This power or property of recovering their previous form after 
alteration, is called elasticity, and we are justified in ascribing it to all 
bodies, though in very different degrees. It was once believed that 
there were definite limits within which changes of form produced by 
pressure or other forces disappeared completely. It was thought, for 
instance, that when a weight of no great magnitude is suspended from 
a metallic wire, the slight increase of length which the wire is observed 
to undergo, is completely lost when the weight is removed ; and the 
limit to which the wire might thus be stretched, and still suffer no per- 
manent increase of length, was called the limit of its elasticity. But 
recent more accurate experiments have shown that no such limits exist, 



54 ELLEN OR THE 

at least in the case of metals ; or, which is the same thing, that perma- 
nent lengthening results, however slightly the wire be loaded — it never 
contracts again quite so far as it was stretched. It is necessary, there- 
fore, to fix the limit arbitrarily • and this is done by agreeing that it 
shall be held to begin when the metal in question suffers a permanent 
elongation of 0*00005 °f lts length. To get the elastic extensibility of 
a wire, then, we must compare its length with a weight suspended, with 
its length when the weight is removed. In this way it is found that 
the extensions produced are proportional to the extending forces or 
weights. From this law, then, we can calculate what weight it would 
require to stretch a wire or rod of a square inch in section to double its 
own length ; supposing it possible to proceed so far without breaking 
it, and that the law of elasticity continued up to this point unaltered. 
This weight, which is different for every metal or kind of wood, is called 
the coefficient or modulus of elasticity of the particular substance ; and 
is used in mechanics in calculating how far a given weight will extend 
a wire or rod of given diameter. This coefficient is not constant for 
the same metal ; for all circumstances that increase the density of the 
metal, increase the modulus of elasticity. Bodies manifest elasticity 
not only when extended in length, but also when compressed, when 
bent, or when twisted. If an ivory ball be dropped from a height upon 
a marble slab smeared with fat and lampblack, when caught after the 
rebound, it is seen to have touched the marble, not in a point, but in 
a circle of several lines in diameter ; and must therefore have lost for 
a time its spherical shape over that extent. In the same way the mark 
of a well hit golf-ball is pretty broadly shown upon the face of a club 
after the stroke. The elasticity shown by wires and threads of glass 
when twisted, has been turned to account in the Torsion-balance, 
for measuring other weak forces. Steel, ivory, caoutchouc, etc., are 
well known for their elastic properties, to which they owe much of 
their utility.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 55 

" Ganot says : 

Elasticity is the property owing to which bodies resume their original 
form or volume, when the force which altered that form or volume 
ceases to act. Elasticity may be developed in bodies by pressure, by 
traction or pulling, flexion or bending, and by torsion or twisting. In 
treating of the general properties of bodies, the elasticity developed by 
pressure alone requires consideration ; the other kinds of elasticity, 
being peculiar to solid bodies, will be considered amongst their specific 
properties. 

' Gases and liquids are perfectly elastic ; in other words, after under- 
going a change in volume they regain exactly their original volume 
when the pressure becomes what it originally was. Solid bodies present 
different degrees of elasticity, though none present the property in the 
same perfection as liquids and gases, and in all it varies according to 
the time during which the body has been exposed to pressure. 
Caoutchouc, ivory, glass, and marble possess considerable elasticity; 
lead, clay, and fats scarcely any. 

* There is a limit to the elasticity of solids, beyond which they either 
break or are incapable of regaining their original form and volume. 
This is called the limit of elasticity ; within this limit all substances are 
perfectly elastic. In sprains, for instance, the elasticity of the tendons 
has been exceeded. In gases and liquids, on the contrary, no such 
limit can be reached ; they always regain their original volume when 
the original pressure is restored. * * * 

e Elasticity of Traction. — Elasticity, as a general property of matter, 
has been already mentioned, but simply in reference to the elasticity 
developed by pressure ; in solids it may also be called into play by 
traction, by torsion, and by flexure. The definitions there given 
require some extension. In ordinary life we consider those bodies as 
highly elastic which, like caoutchouc, undergo considerable change on 
the application of only a small force. Yet the force of elasticity is 



56 ELLEN OR THE 

greatest in many bodies, such as iron, which do not seem to be very- 
elastic. For by force of elasticity is understood the force with which 
the displaced particles tend to revert to their original position, and 
which force is equivalent to that which has brought about the change. 
Considered from this point of view, gases have the least force of 
elasticity; that of liquids is considerably greater, and is, indeed, 
greater than that of many solids. Thus the force of elasticity of mercury 
is greater than that of caoutchouc, glass, wood, and stone. It is, how- 
ever, less than that of the other metals, with the exception of lead. 

' This seems discordant with ordinary ideas about elasticity ; but it 
must be remembered that those bodies which, by the exertion of a 
small force, undergo a considerable change, generally have also the 
property of undergoing this change without losing the property of 
reverting completely to their original state. They have a wide limit 
of elasticity. Those bodies which require great force to effect a 
change are also, for the most part, those on which the exertion of a 
force produces a permanent alteration ; when the force is no longer 
exerted, they do not completely revert to their original state. * . * * 

1 By experiments it has been ascertained that for elasticity of traction 
or pressure — 

'The alteration in length within the limits of elasticity is in proportion 
to the length and to the load acting on the body^ and is inversely as the 
cross section. 

'It depends, moreover, on the specific elasticity ; that is, on a special 
property of the material of the body. If this coefficient be denoted 
by E, and if the length, cross section, and load be respectively desig- 
nated by /, s, and P, then for the alteration in length e, we have 

/P 

' If in the above expression the sectional area be a square millimetre, 

and P be one kilogramme, then 

e 
^=E/, from which E=j- > 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



57 



which expresses by what fraction the length of a bar a square milli- 
metre in section is altered by a load of a kilogramme. This is called 
the coefficient of elasticity ; it is a very small fraction, and it is therefore 

/ 
very desirable to use its reciprocal, that is — or //., as the modulus 

of elasticity ; or the weight in kilogrammes which applied to a bar 
would elongate it by its own length, assuming it to be perfectly elastic. 
This coefficient is known as Young's modulus. ' This cannot be 
observed, for no body is perfectly elastic, but it may be calculated 
from any accurate observations by means of the above formula. 

'The following are the best values for some of the principal sub- 
stances : 





fX 


e 


Wrought-iron 


20,869 


0*000048 


Steel-iron 








. 


18,809 


0*000053 


Platinum 








o 


17,044 


0*000058 


Copper 








o 


12,500 


0*000080 


Slate 








. 


r ?^35 


0*000090 


Zinc 








o 


8,734 


0*000114 


Brass 








c 


8,543 


0*000117 


Crown Glass 











7,917 


0*000126 


Plate Glass 








p 


7,015 


0*000142 


Rock Salt 








„ 


4,230 


0*000236 


Marble 








, 


2,309 


0*000382 


Lead 








» 


1,803 


0*000555 


Bone 











1,635 


0*000612 


Acacia 








, , 


1,262 


0*000792 


Pine 








. 


1,113 


0*000890 


Oak 








, 


921 


0*001085 


Whalebone 








. 


700 


0*001428 


Ice 








. 


1 650 


o*oi 1667 


Sandstone 










631 


0*001521 


Fir 








. 


564 


0*001768 


Gypsum . 








> 


400 


0*002500 



58 ELLEN OR THE 

'Thus, to double the length of a wrought-iron wire a square milli- 
metre in section would (if this were possible) require a weight of about 
19,000 kilogrammes; but a weight of fifteen kilogrammes produces a 
permanent alteration in length of 13 1 54 th, and this is the limit of 
elasticity. The weight, which when applied to a body of unit section 
just brings about an appreciable permanent change, is a measure of 
the limit of elasticity. Whalebone has only a modulus of 700, and 
experiences a permanent elcngation by a weight of five kilogrammes ; 
its limit is, therefore, relatively greater than that of iron. Steel has a 
high modulus, along with a wide limit. 

'Longitudinal stretching is accompanied by a lateral contraction, and 
the ratio of the contraction to the proportional stretching is known as 
Poisson's coefficient. It was taken by him to be one-fourth, but later 
experiments have found the ratio to be about one-third. When a wire 
is stretched by a load to within the limit of elasticity, some time often 
elapses before the full effect is produced, and conversely when the 
load is removed the wire does not at once wholly resume its original 
condition, but a small portion of the deformation remains, and it only 
reverts to its initial state after the lapse of some time. This phenom- 
enon, which is met with in most elastic changes of form, is called the 
elastic after-action or effect, or the elastic fatigue. 



'Both calculation and experiment show that when bodies are length- 
ened by traction their volume increases. 

' When weights are placed on a bar, the amount by which it is short- 
ened, or the coefficient of contraction, is equal to the elongation which 
it would experience if the, same weights were suspended to it, and is 
represented by the above numbers. 

' The influence of temperature on the elasticity of iron, copper, and 
brass was investigated by Kohlrausch and Loomis. They found that 
the alteration in the coefficient of elasticity by heat is the same as 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 59 

that which heat produces in the coefficient of expansion and in the 
refractive power ; it is also much the same as the change in the per- 
manent magnetism, and in the specific heat, while it is less than the 

alteration in the conductivity for electricity. 

******** 

'Elasticity of Torsion. — The laws of the torsion of wires were 
determined by Coulomb, by means of an apparatus called the torsion 
balance. It consists essentially of a vertical metal wire, clamped at 
the upper end in a support, and holding at the other a metal sphere, 
to which is affixed an index. Immediately below this there is a hori- 
zontal graduated circle. If the needle is turned from its position of 
equilibrium through a certain angle, which is the angle of torsion, the 
force necessary to produce this effect is the force of torsion. When, 
after this deflection, the sphere is left to itself, the reaction of torsion 
produces its effect, the wire untwists itself, and the sphere rotates 
about its vertical axis with increasing rapidity until it reaches its 
position of equilibrium. It does not, however, rest there ; in virtue of 
its inertia (force of action) it passes this position, and the wire under- 
goes a torsion in the opposite direction. The equilibrium being again 
destroyed, the wire again tends to untwist itself, the same alterations 
are again produced, and the needle does not rest at zero of the scale 
until after a certain number of oscillations about this point have been 
completed. 

1 By means of this apparatus Coulomb found that when the amplitude 
of the oscillations is within certain limits, the oscillations are subject to 
the following laws : 

'I. The oscillations are very nearly isochronous. 

' II. For the same wire, the angle of torsion is proportional to the 
moment of the force of torsion. 

1 III. With the same force of torsion, and with wires of the same 
dia?neter i the angles of torsion are proportional to the length of the 
wires. 



60 ELLEN OR THE 

' IV. The same force of torsion being applied to wires of the same 
length, the angles of torsion are inversely proportional to the fourth 
powers of the diameters. 

'Wertheim examined the elasticity of torsion in the case of stout 
rods by means of a different apparatus, and found that it is also subject 
to these laws. He further found that, all dimensions being the same, 
different substances undergo different degrees of torsion for the same 
force, and each substance has its own coefficient of torsion, which is 

usually denoted by — . or by t. The value of this coefficient is about 

one-fifth that of the modulus of elasticity. 

1 F/ 

' The laws of torsion may be enunciated in the formula w= : in 

; T r4 

which w is the angle of torsion, F the moment of the force of torsion, 
/ the length of the wire, r its radius, and — the specific torsion-coeffi- 
cient. 

' As the angle of torsion is inversely proportional to the fourth power 
of the radius, rods of some thickness require very great force to pro- 
duce even small twists. With very small diameters, such as those of a 
cocoon or glass thread, the proportionality between the angle of torsion 
and the twisting force holds even for several complete turns. 

■Sp" $fc $fc 3fc 3p vfc $fc $fc 

' Elasticity of Flexure. — A rod or thin plate, fixed at one end, after 
having been more or less bent, when left to itself, strives to return to 
its original position. This property is known as the elasticity of 
flexure, and is very distinct in steel, caoutchouc, wood, and paper. 

' If a rectangular bar be clamped at one end in a horizontal position 
and loaded at the other end by a weight, a flexure will be produced which 
may be observed by the cathetometer. The amount of this flexure, A, 

is represented by the formula X= ^ where P is the load, / the 

bh jx 

length of the bar, b its breadth, h its depth or thickness, /x, the modulus 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 6$ 

of elasticity, and k a constant which depends on the manner in which 
the rod is supported, the three principal cases being represented in 
Fig. 2 ; a is that in which the rod is supported at one end ; in b the 
rod rests on knife edges, with both ends free ; while in c both ends are 
rigid ; if one and the same bar be fastened in these different ways the 
values of A are respectively as 64 14 :i. 






' If the section of the bar is a circle with radius r, then 

3 t>> ' 

1 It will thus be seen that if for a given load the depression is not to 
be greater with a long beam than with a short one, the height must 
increase in the same ratio as the length. 

' It is clear that an accurate measurement of the flexure of a bar 
furnishes a means of determining its modulus of elasticity. 

'The elasticity of flexure is applied in a vast variety of instances — 
for example, in bows, watch-springs, carriage-springs ; in spring bal- 
ances it is used to determine weights, in dynamometers to determine 
the force of agents in prime movers ; and, as a property of wool, hair, 
and feathers, it is applied to domestic uses in cushions and mattresses. 

' Whatever be the kind of elasticity, there is, as has been already 
said, a limit to it — that is, there is a molecular displacement beyond 
which bodies are broken, or at any rate do not regain their primitive 
form. This limit is affected by various causes. The elasticity of many 
metals is increased by hardening, whether by cold, by means of the 
draw-plate, by rolling, or by hammering. Some substances, such as 



64 ELLEN OR THE 

steel, cast iron, and glass, become both harder and more elastic by 
tempering. 

'Elasticity, on the other hand, is diminished by annealing, which 
consists in raising the body to a temperature lower than that necessary 
for tempering, and allowing it to cool slowly. By this means the 
elasticity of springs may be regulated at pleasure. Glass, when it is 
heated, undergoes a true tempering in being rapidly cooled, and hence, 
in order to lessen the fragility of glass objects, they are reheated in a 
furnace, and are carefully allowed to cool slowly, so that the particles 
have time to assume their most stable position.' " 

"And what is the reciprocal of a number, Ellen?" I asked. 
"It is one divided by the number, so that the reciprocal 
of a fraction expresses the number of times that the frac- 
tion is contained in unity. The modulus, then, of elasticity 
represents the number of times that the coefficient of elasticity 
is contained in unity. And this represents the number of kilo- 
grams of weight or pressure that it would take to stretch a 
body of uniform cross section its own length. The old Pine 
should be very particular to remember this, as it enters into the 
present explanation of Mr. Newton's formula for the speed of 
sound." 

"And what is the moment of the force of torsion, Ellen?" 
"It is the power producing rotation about an axis, and is 
measured by the product of the acting force into the lever on 
which it acts. Thus the weight that a man can raise with a 
windlass depends upon the length of the crank or lever and the 
power which is applied. 

"We have a force, BP (Fig. 3)." 

"Yes," I said, "it looks like a very nice force." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 65 

"And it is a very nice force, an awfully nice force. And we 
have a point, A." 

"Yes," I said, "it looks pretty lonesome — as if it was up 
a tree." 

"But it isn't up a tree ; it's in the air. Draw AN perpen- 
dicular to B P. Connect A B, A C. The product of the 
number of units of force in P and the number of 
units of length in AN is called the moment of P 
with respect to A. Since the force P can be 
represented by a straight line, the moment of P 
can be represented by an area. If B C represents 
the force, the momerit will be represented by twice the area of 
the triangle ABC; for BCxAN is equal to twice the area of 
the triangle. The perpendicular AN is sometimes called the 
arm of the force. 

"In considering the speed of sound, Ganot says: 

'From theoretical considerations Newton gave a rule for calculating 
the velocity of sound in gases, which may be represented by the 
formula 




"=Vf 



in which v represents the velocity of the sound, or the distance it 
travels in a second, e the elasticity of the gas, and d its density. 

1 This formula expresses that the velocity of the propagation of sound 
in gases is directly as the square root of the elasticity of the gas, and 
inversely as the square root of its density? 

"The words Mr. Newton uses in above formula are 'elastic 
force,' and that is the meaning of Mr. Ganot, or his translator. 



66 ELLEN OR THE 

"And so the article on Acoustics by Professor David 
Thompson, of the University of Aberdeen, in the Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica, says: 

' Hence, denoting the ratio which any increase of pressure bears to 
the diminution of the unit of volume of the substance, and which is 
termed the elasticity of the substance, by e, we shall obtain for the 
velocity of a wave of longitudinal displacements, supposed small, the 
equation : 

v=\J es or z»= J — .' 

"In this use of the word 'elasticity' by this eminent physicist, 
the modulus of elasticity is intended. The symbol s represents 
the volume of the unit of mass, and p represents the mass of 
the unit volume. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 6j 



VI. 



^ FALLEN has quoted enough, intelligently studied, to 
*— ' tell what these principles are which connect with that 
property of bodies called elasticity. And she has also 
quoted enough to show that the scientists in their text 
books and discourses on this subject, use the word elas- 
ticity indiscriminately to denote a property, force, and 
ratio. And, so far as Ellen knows, they all do this. This, 
of course, they wouldn't do if they were well grounded in the 
knowledge of their art, and good mechanics in the use of lan- 
guage. And the result is that they force disbelief in their 
theories and throw themselves into ridicule, by asserting in 
one place that the same bodies are highly elastic, and in 
another that they are not. Such misstatements, too, provoke 
the indignation of those who are really anxious to arrive at 
truth. And it becomes most evident that those who undertake 
to teach are themselves the most in need of instruction. 

" In air and all gases there is a principle of expansion, the 
limits of which we do not know. Its force is increased by 
compression, and, in unconfined air, is therefore in part, at 
least, the result of gravitation. Elastic force in gases is a 
cause of expansion. But the most familiar cause of expansion 
is heat. 

"The old Pine will see that Ellen is trying to explain 



68 ELLEN OR THE 

elastic force, something that the text books, as far as she 
knows, have never attempted. But for some reason a thing is 
elastic. Certainly it is not so because of no reason. That is, 
there is some — and a well-defined — distinction between a so- 
called elastic and an inelastic body. The one contains a 
force that causes its molecules to return to their original 
position when disturbed, and the other does not, although 
it may be true that all bodies are to some extent elastic. 
The difference, then, between the two is in a force. And 
a force must be something, for it is incredible to suppose 
a result — in this case, the re-adjustment of the particles — 
obtained from nothing. But if something, then, so far as we 
have any knowledge, it must be composed of matter, for there 
is nothing else to compose it of in the material universe. And 
Ellen thinks we would have knowledge if there was ; that, as 
she has said before, the little bit of the universe which we see is 
an epitome of the whole, and that in this epitome all the laws 
are at work which govern the whole. Hence, elastic force is 
matter in motion. There is no other possible explanation. 
But this elastic force would appear to be the cause of vibration 
in full or in part. And vibration makes sound. 

"And its manner of operation suggests the production 
of foam in water. This is formed by a commotion of 
the water, thus intermixing air." And the greater the com- 
motion the greater the amount of foam. Thus the steamer 
moving upon the ocean leaves in its wake a trail of foam. 
It leaves also a trail of disturbed water, the cause of the 
foam. And so vibration, the result of disturbance caused 
by two reciprocal forces, produces sound. But vibration 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 69 

is caused by shock, and the least shock will cause it. That 
is, it is caused by contact, and contact is always the result 
of motion. But Ellen has told the old Pine that motion is 
inherent in matter and therefore eternal, eternal as matter ; 
from which it follows that sound, if caused by vibration, 
is constant, constant as matter, always existing, though, like 
every other substance made of matter, always perishing. 
And it perishes as an apple perishes, or a pumpkin, 
or a house. For as it is made by the law of all matter — 
combination — so it perishes from that other great law 
governing all matter — disintegration. And so the old Pine 
can see, unless he is awfully blind, that sound, like odor, 
is a substance, — whether moved by some extraneous force 
or endowed with a power of motion, — dissipating as it 
moves. It is created in showers, flows naturally in straight 
lines, and spreads in all directions where there are channels 
for it or things capable of conducting it. Unlike a stream, it 
is not controlled by gravitation, but ascends as well as 
descends. The air will transmit it, and is the most common 
medium through which sound is made manifest to us. By it 
sound is conducted to that open gate of the ear, and through 
this to that house not made by hands, in whose recesses dwells 
something far more wonderful than sound — a soul or spirit. 
"And this spirit learns to use sounds for the communication 
of ideas. Each entity of sound then becomes a vessel loaded 
with ideas or parts of ideas. And when all the parts have arrived 
they are put together as a house; and so ideas are introduced 
to the soul and where there are many of them they are like a 
town or a city. And they are all brought to the soul, or the 



70 ELLEN OR THE 

many souls which live in these houses of the body, by the 
myriads of the boats of sound, which are always plying in the 
ocean of the air. Surely the old Pine sees with the mind's eye 
the millions of things which are constantly occurring which we 
cannot see with the physical eye." 

" Yes," I said, "the old Pine sees. But the air is not the 
only medium that transmits sound?" 

" Oh, no," she replied, " nor can the vessels of sound sail as fast 
over or through — for Ellen knows not which it is — the particles 
of air, as they can over or through the particles of many other 
substances. Thus a car may travel on a road six to ten miles 
an hour and on a rail twenty to thirty or more. And sound 
passes through water nearly four times as fast as through air 
and through some metals much faster; and so, depend- 
ing on the nature of its track, its speed is regulated. And 
thus, too, if the ear comes in contact with these media, 
sound will enter it more readily than from the air, reach 
the auditory nerve, and travel along it until it comes to 
the soul. For the nerves of sensation, as Ellen thinks, are 
very similar to those channels or rivers which pass from an 
ocean up into a country. Nor is it possible that they can be 
otherwise. For they are not the soul or spirit, and hence of 
necessity must lead to the soul or spirit." 

" And Ellen thinks that certain of them are channels to carry 
the ships loaded with sound, odor, flavor, and light?" 

"Yes," she said; "she knows that they are." 

"But the scientists say that it is through the motion 
of these nerves, or matter connected with them, that all of 
these thinsrs are communicated to the soul." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE J I 

"As well might the goods of a ship be conveyed inland by 
leaving them at the mouth of a river, and then disturbing its 
waters," she replied. "The old Pine knows that any such thing 
is incredible. Nor is it possible for sound, or odor, or flavor, 
or light to reach the soul, only as they ascend the channels of 
the nerves to their destination, the soul." 

"But," I said, " Ellen, how could vibration make such a 
substance as sound?" 

"Surely the old Pine cannot think of anything better to make 
it," she answered. " It's a wonderfully good mill, as Ellen thinks. 
And so is a cloud for making and distributing rain. Now this 
thing sound must come to the intelligence that recognizes it, as 
everything must which intelligence recognizes. Perhaps the 
most wonderful of all things is light, by which the images of 
things are brought from a distance to the observer through 
the eye, and he is thus made familiar with or aware of their 
existence. The moving of blocks of wood, or of air, or any 
other substance, between the centre of sound and the brain, 
would not and could not produce any thing but change of posi- 
tion, which is not sound. A stove moved is still a stove. And 
so anything moved may be, and, if uninjured, is the same thing 
as before. Motion alone will not change its identity nor add 
to its capacities. It is impossible, then, that the mere 
movement of anything should produce in that thing any 
phenomena which were not inherent in it. Nor could it 
make any difference how far it was moved, or how fast. 
So if the thing sound was not in the substances moved, 
or in the brain whence the movement went, it would not and 
could not take place. In the undulatory theory it is not sup- 



J2 ELLEN OR THE 

posed to be in the substances moved ; nor does any one sup- 
pose it to be in the brain." 

" Except, Ellen, under the supposition of the idealists, 
as Kant or Bishop Berkeley, that there is no material exist- 
ence, but that all things are sensations, and exist only in 
the mind." 

"But," she said, "the professed believers in undulatory 
theories are not idealists, but realists of a pronounced type in 
everything which they can see. Here they are neither realists 
nor idealists, but profess a mongrel belief in something that 
exists by the movement of something else, which is impos- 
sible." 

"But the old Pine supposed this theory held that the drum 
skin of the ear was made to vibrate by aerial waves dashing 
upon it. That this vibration was carried along to the Corti 
fibres, whose vibration set going a nerve stimulus, which went 
to the centre of hearing in the brain and gave rise to the sensa- 
tion of sound." 

"And what is a nerve stimulus?" she asked. 

"The old Pine doesn't know." 

"Nor does any one else," she said. "For it is but 
1 Sound — signifying nothing.' 
It is a word coined by scientists to cover their ignorance. 
The old Pine is both too honest and too sensible to be deceived 
by it. Instead of accepting nature's laws as we know them, 
scientists think they can improve them and so offer others. 
And this they do whilst teaching that nature's laws are 
fundamental and universal. But they are so utterly income 
petent, that, without the slightest hesitation, they will proclaim 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE /5 

principles in one breath, and go back on them in another. 
Thus the most important of nature's laws, — that by- which she 
forms each separate thing, which is perfectly understood, and 
which in scientific principles must be fundamental and uni- 
versal, — scientists ignore at the very first opportunity, and 
substitute therefor their own vagaries. From this utterly 
senseless leap into the dark has also arisen very largely the 
materialism and atheism of science ; or rather, perhaps, the 
two arise from the same cause, — ignorance. 

"The following extracts from Biichner's 'Force and Matter,' 
upon the Universality of Nature's Laws, illustrate the present 
position of science in this matter: 

'The universality of terrestrial laws is above all doubt, as far as 
science is concerned.' — Dil PreL 

' In the present condition of our knowledge with respect to the worlds 
surrounding our earth, we can declare with perfect assurance that the 
same materials, the same forces, the same physical laws, with which we 
on this earth find ourselves moulded and surrounded, are found in the 
All which is visible to us, and that they are at work in all places in the 
same fashion and with the same inherent necessity as in our immediate 
proximity. Natural philosophy and astronomy have furnished us with 
complete proofs of this in sufficient number ; astronomical science 
indeed could not exist as such, if the universality of terrestrial laws were 
not recognized. 

'Let us first consider Gravitation, that universal primal and funda- 
mental force of Nature, by which are regulated the movements and the 
general mutual effects produced by all bodies in the universe upon each 
other. The laws by which these movements and effects take place, 
are invariable in all the realms of space into which the telescope peers 



y6 ELLEN OR THE 

and which are reached by calculation. The movements of all, even the 
most distant, bodies take place according to the same laws by which 
bodies thrown on our earth move, by which a stone falls, a cannon-ball 
flies, or a pendulum oscillates. When we see the countless atoms of 
dust dancing in our room in the light of the sun their movement is gov- 
erned (as Dti Prel remarks) by the same law which guides the move- 
ments of the stars in the furthest realms of space to which our eyes can 
reach by aid of the most powerful instrument — that is, by the law of 
gravity. All astronomical calculations respecting the most distant 
planets and their movements have been based on this known law, and 
they have proved correct. Everybody knows that by the aid of this 
calculation, astronomers foretell eclipses of the sun and of the moon, 
transits of planets, etc., with unfailing certainty as to the day, hour and 
minute, and calculate hundreds of years in advance the appearances 
and re-appearances of comets, those well known knights-errant of space, 
having for their orbits now an ellipse, now a parabola, now a hyperbola ; 
and they do so despite the many disturbances and irregularities to which 
the movements of these bodies are liable. 

' Astronomers have even succeeded by calculations based wholly on 
the law of gravitation or rotation in determining the presence of stars 
which were only discovered by the telescope when it was known in 
which direction they were to be looked for. Thus, in the year 1846, 
the French astronomer Leverrier came on the track of Neptune, until 
then unseen by any telescope, in directing his attention to the disturb- 
ance shown by the neighboring planet Uranus in its orbit. When, in 
consequence of this, Galle, at Berlin, turned his telescope towards the 
specified place, he found the planet of which both the spot and the mass 
had been already determined. Just the same thing has happened within 
the last few years in the case of the intramercurial planet Vulcan, which 
has not yet been seen with complete certainty, but the existence of 
which is scientifically proved. But that which, more than everything 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE J*J 

else, proves that the laws of gravitation or attraction exist in the remot- 
est regions of fixed stars, which are separated from us by many billions 
of miles, just the same as these laws are in force in our solar system or 
on our earth, is the study of the remarkable double stars, which have 
become better known only of late years. These are situated so close 
together that they can only be distinguished from each other by means 
of the most powerful instruments, and revolving around each other. 
In their singular movements they obey the law of gravity, as do the 
planets of our solar system. Thus, the presence of a second body near 
the splendid fixed star Sirius {a in Cams Major) now known to be a 
double star, was deduced from its peculiar movements on the basis of 
the law of gravitation, twenty years before Clark discovered the star 
itself at Boston, on Jan. 31, 1862. It had revealed its existence, thanks 
to our conviction. of the universal force of gravitation, before ever a 
human eye had gazed upon it. "If anywhere," said the astronomer 
M. W. Mayer, " we have in this discovery the most conclusive argument 
in favor of the universality of attraction between masses in the universe." 
Indeed, the existence of these remarkable double stars shows that while 
in the fathomless depths of space the creative force of Nature seems to 
love to reveal itself in very much the same variety as here on our earth, 
yet it never, nor in any place, follows any laws unknown to us, or others 
than those to which it would have entrusted the building-up and the 
governance of the world. On the contrary, all these marvellous worlds 
have been evolved according to the same simple laws as those which 
built and rule our little earth. 

' Astronomers, confidently relying on the laws of gravitation, do not 
hesitate to authoritatively lay down the existence of dark or to our eyes 
imperceptible satellites of some of the fixed stars, e. g. Procyon, as the 
consequence of their peculiar movements. 

'It may also be remarked that the physical condition of all the 
planets whose proximity to our globe renders possible a sufficiently 



yS ELLEN OR THE 

exact determination of their surfaces, is similar or analogous to that of 
our earth. Venus has high mountains ; Mars has continents and seas, 
summer and winter. The moon has mountains, plains, valleys and vol- 
canoes like the earth. All the planets of our system have seasons, 
days and nights as we have, although their relative lengths vary. 
Besides, they are all spherical in shape, like the earth ; i. e. they bulge 
out at the equator and are flattened at the poles ; like the earth, they 
are more or less inclined on their axes and have the double motion of 
rotation and translation ; all these are signs of a similar origin. Hence 
the genesis of our globe yields us a sure analogy for the history of the 
origin and evolution of the other planets. 

'The laws of light, no less than those of gravitation, are the same 
throughout the universe and the same as on our earth. Light, whether 
solar or artificial, has throughout the same composition and the same 
velocity, and its refraction takes place everywhere in the same way. 
The light sent to us by the most distant fixed stars through a space of 
many billions of miles, is distinguishable in nothing from the light of our 
sun ; it follows the same laws and is of the same composition. So little 
doubt is there among learned men on this head that the different color- 
ing of the light proceeding from fixed stars enables them to decide with 
absolute certainty, on the one hand as to the temperature, condition 
and stage of development of these stars, on the other as to their indi- 
vidual and relative movements in space. Thus we are likewise in a 
position to determine according to terrestrial processes the areas of the 
umbrae and penumbras arising from solar and lunar eclipses. Even the 
ring of the planet Saturn throws a shadow on it and receives in its turn 
a shadow from the planet. Lastly, the photographs taken of individual 
fixed stars prove that the light emitted by them contains, like sunlight, 
chemically active as well as luminous rays. The same remark applies 
to the heating rays, as has been shown by very delicate instru- 
ments. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 79 

' Like the laws of light, the laws of heat are the same throughout the 
universe, heat being the commonest and most widely distributed form of 
energy known to us, and being at this day universally regarded as merely 
another form of light. The heat coming to us from the' sun or from 
the other fixed stars works exactly according to the same principles as 
the rays of heat do which are emitted by our earth or by the hot-springs 
• found therein. On caloric circumstances depend the solidity, the 
fluidity, the gaseous condition of bodies ; therefore these conditions 
must exist everywhere upon similar terms, so to speak. It has been 
shown in a preceding chapter that the other forces of nature, such as 
electricity, magnetism, mechanical power, chemical affinity, etc., are so 
closely bound up with caloric circumstances and stand to these in such 
intimate relationship, based upon reciprocal interchange, that they can- 
not be separated from one another ; therefore must all these forces 
exist where warmth exists, that is to say, everywhere. This is espe- 
cially true of the relation of heat to the form and manner of chemical 
combination and dissociation, which must necessarily proceed through- 
out the universe in a uniform manner, since the experiments carried on 
by the help of spectral analysis have proved to demonstration the uni- 
versal distribution of chemical elements identical with those existing on 
our earth. But long before this most recent and interesting method of 
investigation had become known, the same conclusion had been arrived 
at by the study of those visible and tangible messengers from another, 
non-terrestrial world, which we designate as meteorites or meteoric 
stones. Chemistry has not been able to discover a single element not 
present in our world in these remarkable bodies, the cosmic origin of 
which was for centuries regarded as a preposterous myth, while people 
on the other hand believed firmly and steadfastly in downright impos- 
sible things and events. These bodies are hurled to us from other 
worlds or from the primal ether, in all probability from the very depths 
of the space pertaining to the fixed stars, possibly as pieces or remnants 



80 ELLEN OR THE 

of shattered planets or dissolved comets. Among the twenty-one ele- 
ments or chemical groups found in these bodies up to the present time, 
there is not a single one alien to those of our own globe, and the sub- 
stances predominant in them, such as iron, silicon, oxygen, are the 
very ones which also predominate on the surface of the earth. Daubree 
has also discovered that the similarity that exists between these meteor- 
ites and the terrestrial minerals increases in proportion as we penetrate 
more deeply into the crust of the earth, and that several of the minerals 
found at the greatest depths (such as olivine, herzolite, serpentine,) 
are in composition and condition almost identical with the meteorites ; 
and lastly, that in closer proximity to the surface of the earth minerals 
are found which are formed of constituents similar to those of the 
meteorites, but oxidized (united with oxygen,) and thereby having their 
mineral character changed. Daubree further succeeded in artificially 
obtaining from terrestrial stones substances closely resembling meteor- 
ites. The investigation of meteorites has shown moreover that the 
crystals distributed throughout their internal structure are formed 
according to the very laws of crystallization which we recognize in ter- 
restrial crystals, and that their forms in no wise differ from those known 
to us. Even the microscope, as Moldenhauer remarks, (Das Weltall 
und seine Entwicklung, I, p. 7), has not failed to render aid in this 
direction. " It appears in the structure of the meteorites, those little 
bodies that fall upon us from far-ofl unknown regions, that the internal 
construction of alien inorganic masses is essentially identical with that 
of our own." 

' These facts alone would be sufficient to prove that — in the words 
of Professor Spiller — "the unity of the forces of Nature extends to the 
very atoms of matter," and that ik the formative force for each material 
and for each atom of matter is the same in the whole universe." But 
that which was only raised to high probability by the investigation of 
meteorites, has been made almost into a certainty by spectral analysis, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 8 1 

that ''language of light" as it has been rightly termed, the glance of 
which pierces through the chemical constitution of the most distant 
stars. Above all things it has taught us that the mass of the sun — and 
indeed nothing else could be expected from the fact of all the members 
of the solar system deriving their origin from the same primal mist-^ 
contains no other chemical elements in its ardent or incandescent 
integument than those which exist in our earth. These elements, as 
everyone knows, are sodium, iron, calcium, magnesium, chromium, 
nickel, barium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, titanium, aluminium, stron- 
tium, lead, copper, cadmium, cerium, uranium, potassium, vanadium, 
palladium, molybdenum, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. There is still 
some doubt about the presence of a number of other known elements, 
such as indium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, bismuth, tin, silver, beryl- 
lium, lanthanum, yttrium, iridium, silicon, sulphur, carbon, etc. Prob- 
ably all the metalloids (non-metals) are to be found in them ; other 
heavy metals, such as gold, silver and mercury, may be present in the 
deeper parts of the sun or of its envelope, inaccessible to spectral 
analysis. The chemical composition of the solar envelope offers gen- 
erally the greatest resemblance to, or analogy with, the chemical con- 
stitution of meteoric stones.* 

'Of course, astronomers have not contented themselves with merely 
using the spectroscope — which is able to yield such positive data on 



* It must not be forgotten that one material, or one substance, has been discovered 
in the solar spectrum that corresponds with no terrestrial one, and which has there- 
fore been named helium. But according to the distinguished spectroscopist Norman 
Lockyer, helium is apparently nothing more than a modified form of hydrogen ; and 
besides, Professor Palmieri of Naples states that he has lately discovered the helium 
line in the spectrum of the lava of Vesuvius. In point of fact it is very possible that 
an element, the presence of which has not yet been discovered on the earth, may 
play an important part elsewhere, and on the other hand an element predominant 
with us may only be present to a slight extent in the composition of other stars. The 
general identity or unity of materials is therefore open to no doubt whatever. 



S2 ELLEN OR THE 

the chemical composition of the most distant bodies — to investigate 
the sun, but, despite the great difficulties involved, it has been turned 
also to account in the study of the planets, comets, fixed stars, nebulae, 
falling stars, etc. The result has been materially the same throughout. 
These enquiries have proved the truth of the theory propagated by 
earlier astronomers, viz., that the so-called fixed stars are nothing but 
actual suns, in the atmospheres or luminous envelopes of which are 
found again in an incandescent condition those known bodies, some of 
which have already been mentioned, like iron, calcium, sodium, mag- 
nesium, tellurium, antimony, bismuth, mercury, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc, 
Hydrogen appears to play the chief part in most of the fixed stars, and 
to cause the same violent eruptions and whirlwinds in them as it does 
in the sun. If all the substances found in the sun have not yet been 
shown to exist in the fixed stars, this probably results from the faintness 
of the spectra, arising from the immensity of the distances. The same 
remark applies to the yet more distant nebulae or to those glowing 
masses of gas which astronomers regard as systems of worlds in 
course of evolution, and the spectra of which denote principally hydro- 
gen and nitrogen. The comets have also been analyzed by means of 
the spectroscope, notwithstanding the dimness of their light which ren- 
ders accurate observation very difficult, and carbon and hydrogen have 
been discovered in them. Even falling stars have been submitted to 
the same analysis, and it is claimed that carbon, as well as glowing 
vapors of sodium and magnesium, have been discovered in them. It 
need hardly be mentioned that the light of the planet, being borrowed 
from the sun, must show the same composition as that of the sun itself. 
' These discoveries form landmarks in the history of science and are 
worthy of being placed side by side with the greatest discoveries of all 
ages. They prove that matter is essentially identical not only within 
our solar system, but in the whole universe, down to the regions of fixed 
stars and nebulae. Now seeing that identity of substances must neces- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 83 

sarily imply identity of forces, and that " the special form in which a 
substance produces its regular effect is the direct outcome of its chem- 
ical condition" (Dti Prel,) no doubt can remain as to the similarity of 
materials and forces throughout the universe and as to the similarity of 
development in our solar system and in the most distant heaven of the 
fixed stars — a view which is now thoroughly accepted by all scientists 
who have concentrated their attention on the study of this question. 
Professor Kirchoff himself, the famous discoverer of spectral analysis, 
has stated his conviction "that the substances and forces in the whole 
universe are essentially the same." 

' All these facts and observations — with those already given at the 
beginning of the chapter — prove to demonstration the universality of 
natural laws, a phrase which is indeed but another expression for the 
regular working of matter and of its forces, arising from its chemical 
and physical nature, and these laws cannot therefore be confined to our 
globe, but must act in a similar fashion throughout the entire universe. 
* * * . The visible universe surrounding us is an infinite whole, 
composed of the same substances, borne by the same energies, swayed 
by the same immutable natural laws. 

'Oerstedt rightly maintained, in treating of the identity of mental and 
physical laws, that this universal application of the laws of Nature which 
are conceived by reason, presupposes also a fundamental equality of the 
conceptive faculty of the intellect throughout the universe. Should 
reasoning beings exist outside of our planet — and this is probable 
enough, since it is difficult to see why the same or similar causes should 
not, under the same or similar conditions, produce the same or similar 
results everywhere — their thinking power must necessarily be the same 
as, or similar to, ours, although in degree or development it may vary 
to almost any extent. The principles of the physical development of 
man are also likely to be on the whole identical. So great, however, is 
the diversity of the individual worlds in point of mass, temperature, 



84 ELLEN OR THE 

density, illumination, physical condition of the surface, etc., and so far 
do the phases of development diverge from each other in the individual 
stars, that we have a perfect right to assume also the possibility of an 
endless diversity in the respective organization of the inhabitants of 
each individual world. * * * One thing only, as we have said 
already, can be stated with comparative certainty, and it is that the 
identity of cosmical substances and laws admits of the inference that 
the fundamental principles of physical and mental phenomena, of 

organic and inorganic life, must be the same everywhere. 

* ******* 

'"In the life of the mind," says Ph. Spiller (Die Urkraft des AVelt- 
alls, 1876,) "there must eventually be some features of absolute unity, 
despite the diversity that may exist in its organization. The laws of 
thinking are no doubt the same throughout the universe." ' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 87 



VII. 

£t r I ^HIS undulatory theory of sound is wrong, because, 
J- first, it is unscientific, being based on wrong prin- 
ciples ; second, the system of waves which it contemplates 
could not possibly exist; third, such a system, if existing, 
could not bend the ear drum in and out; and fourth, a mere 
mechanical pressure on the tympanum of the ear could not pro- 
duce the phenomena of sound. 

"For, as Ellen has pointed out, the universal law of nature 
in creation is by the combination of elements or substances. 
There is no other, and any suggestion of it comes only from 
very incompetent thinkers, and is upon its face incorrect. 

"Ellen will show that its system of waves cannot exist. 

"It would be impossible for such a system of waves, if exist- 
ing, to exert the mechanical force which they are supposed to 
perform, and must perform if the theory is true. For, omitting 
the other mechanical operations that enter into the problem, 
ear-drums are a substantial quantity and require a definite 
amount of energy to bend them once in and once out. Nor is 
this any negligible amount even for a single ear-drum. But 
if the same sound, and that not a loud one, is heard by many 
thousands through this movement of ear-drums, it is evident 
that it will require a very large amount of mechanical energy 
to fulfil the necessities of this theory — an amount that many 
animals such as insects or birds could no more exert than they 
could remove mountains. Thus the Katy-did or Whip-poor- 



88 ELLEN OR THE 

will can be heard over a space where many thousands of people 
could be placed, who would all hear the sound if present, the 
aggregate weight of whose ear-drums might reach the sum of 
hundreds or thousands of pounds, for every ear-drum weighs 
half a grain, more or less. So that our pretty Whip-poor-will, 
while he is singing, must exert a force to move such an amount 
hundreds of times each second, if this theory were true. But 
the old Pine and Ellen both know that, though a fine musician, 
the Whip-poor-will cannot exert any such amount of physical 
energy. And therefore it is certain that ear-drums are not 
thus bent in and out by a mechanical energy exerted by the 
Whip-poor-will, as must be the case if this theory is true. And 
if they are thus bent or thus vibrate, the vibration is accom- 
plished not by such mechanical energy, but by some more 
subtle and vastly superior force, as that of electricity. 

"And fourth, there are no phenomena of sensation which do 
not first exist materially. They may, then, or may not, be per- 
ceived by any particular intelligence ; but this much is certain, 
that they cannot be perceived as sensations until so existing. 
And this is true to the minutest detail. Thus we have a 
tree, with its trunk, bark, limbs, flowers, and leaves, including 
every indentation of the bark, the form and order of even- 
branch and every twig, and the shape and position of every 
flower and every leaf. Because of this absolutely complete 
image of the tree, is the absolutely complete sensation of a 
tree. So, too, if the material tree is deficient, the sensation 
will be deficient, and to exactly the same extent. Thus, were 
the ribs, veins, and notches of the leaves, or of a single 
leaf, or a single vein of a single leaf wanting in the physical 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 89 

tree, it would be wanting in the sensation. Does any one 
suppose that it is any different with sound, or that there 
is any exception in this law of sensations? Does any one 
doubt that all the marvellous differences of sound, which 
are as many and as manifest as any that exist in any 
of the phenomena of nature, are first formed materially? 
There is no more possible question about this than that 
they exist at all. This is one of nature's many universal 
laws. The heavens and earth will pass away before this law 
will pass away. As a rainbow is builded, or a raindrop ; as an 
icicle is formed, or a snowflake with its crystals of such exquisite 
beauty; so are sounds formed perfect in every part, and repre- 
senting an infinite number of differences, because built up 
in nature so as to represent them. For, though we cannot see 
this phenomenon, sound, we recognize it in our sensations, and 
know that nothing is perceived by them except as it exists first 
materially. Sound, then, must be created before it can be 
heard." 

"It is made by vibration, is it not, Ellen?" I asked. 

"Its immediate cause is pressure or shock," she answered, 
"from which results vibration, between which and sound there 
always exists an exact relationship. But vibration, as Ellen 
thinks, must be the result of moving matter by whatever name 
called. And it has generally been attributed to the elastic 
property of bodies, which, to a certain extent at least, is 
occasioned by heat. 

" Berruil said : 

*(i) Everybody in nature is porous, and these pores are propor- 
tional to the density of the substance. (2) These pores are filled with 



90 ELLEN OR THE 

different fluids, and principally with caloric. But caloric possesses a 
strong repulsive force ; from which it follows that when an elastic body 
is compressed the caloric in its pores drives back by its repulsive power 
the displaced parts and brings them to their former state.' 

"And Mr. J. C. Maxwell says: 

' The laws of elasticity express the relation between the changes of 
the dimensions of a body and the forces which produce them. These 
forces are called pressures and their effects compressions. Pressures 
are estimated in pounds on the square inch, and compressions in frac- 
tions of the dimensions compressed.' 

"Sound is a product of such conditions, and is, as Ellen 
thinks, in its nature as well as in its surroundings, of electrical 
character. Let any one place the stem of a vibrating tuning 
fork anywhere on the head. Here is no possibility of air 
waves, but the sound is complete and is heard the most dis- 
tinctly possible, for the force that makes it, or the sound, 
passes from the fork into the head." 

"But, Ellen," I said, "do not all the scientists agree that the 
thing which takes place in the production of sensations, as 
sound, smell, taste, when the substance comes in contact with 
the nerves of sensation, is a motion? Thus Mr. Tyndall writes : 

'The various nerves of the human body have their origin in the 
brain, which is the seat of sensation. When the finger is wounded, 
the sensor nerves convey to the brain intelligence of the injury, and if 
these nerves be severed, however serious the hurt may be, no pain is 
experienced. We have the strongest reason for believing that what 
the nerves convey to the brain is in all cases motion. The motion 
here meant is not, however, that of the nerve as a whole, but of its 
molecules or smallest particles. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE Ql 

'Different nerves are appropriated to the- transmission of different 
kinds of molecular motion. The nerves of taste, for example, are not 
competent to transmit the tremors of light, nor is the optic nerve com- 
petent to transmit sonorous vibrations. For these a special nerve is 
necessary, which passes from the brain into one of the cavities of the 
ear, and there divides into a multitude of filaments. It is the motion 
imparted to this, the auditory nerve, which, in the brain, is translated 
into sound.' 

"And Ellen knows that there are such nerves connected with 
the brain ; and does not Ellen think the scientists know, when 
they affirm so positively that it is motion, and nothing else, 
which passes along these nerves?" 

" Ellen knows, old Pine, that they don't know anything 
about it." 

"And does not Ellen think that their claim is true?" 

" Ellen does not think so." 

"And what does she think?" 

"She thinks that in each case the substance causing the 
sensation is introduced into the system of the body, just as 
food and drink are ; that the motion of the nerves answers 
the same purpose as those of the muscles in swallowing, 
and no other; that the whole proceeding is a substantial one, 
and that in this way and no other is every phenomenon of 
nature accomplished ; that nowhere does something come from 
nothing, or the motion of one thing give the effect of another; 
that there is no confusion in the order of nature, but that 
everywhere and always things are created in the same manner, 
and produce their effects in the same manner, and that manner 
is by their presence. Nor does Ellen think that anything is 



9~ ELLEN OR THE 

or can be effective where it is not, or cannot reach. When 
camphor or any other remedy is snuffed into the nose to 
relieve some trouble in the head, does the old Pine think 
that what takes place is an appropriate motion in some muscle 
or nerve? That takes place, for it is the manner provided 
by nature for the introduction of such remedy to the part 
where it is needed, and the motion accomplishes this, its part. 
But the healing power is in the remedy, to be accomplished 
by contact, either of its whole substance or of an effective 
part put out from it. It is the soul and not the nerves 
that tastes or smells or hears ; nor does it taste or smell 
or hear a motion, but that particular substance formed by 
nature, through her always sufficient law of combinations, to 
produce the effect intended. As Mr. Tyndall does not state 
what this strongest reason that he refers to is, it is impossible 
to discuss it. Ellen's reply is that no such reason exists; but 
that on the contrary we have the strongest possible reasons to 
believe that whenever the finger is wounded, a new substance is 
created, which, through the medium of the nerve, conveys the 
sense of injury to the brain. If the nerve is cut, it of course 
cannot convey this sense of injury." 

"And what are these strongest reasons that Ellen refers to? " 
I asked. 

"The strongest of all possible reasons," she said, "the uni- 
versality of nature's laws. For everything that happens in the 
material universe takes place in this way, by a combination of 
this most wonderful thing we call matter. So far as we have 
knowledge, there is no exception. Nor does Ellen think that 
any exception is possible; else must something come from 



WHISPERINGS OF AX OLD PINE 93 

nothing-. Thus we have all sensations — those that give pleas- 
ure and those that give pain ; sensations of beauty, whatever, 
the)- are; sensations of odor; sensations of taste, both those, 
that are agreeable and those that are disagreeable, those that 
are healthful and those that are noxious ; the agreeable sen- 
sations from an orange and the fatal ones from poison. Nor is 
it possible for Ellen to think that the sense of. injur}' is con- 
veyed or can be in any different manner. Does the old Pine 
think that he could devise a better way of creation?" 

"The old Pine certainly does not, but thinks just as Ellen 
does, that nature's method of accomplishment in the material 
universe is by appropriate substances, endowed with their 
proper motions ; for he knows of no instance where this is 
otherwise, nor can well imagine that it could be otherwise." 

" Sensible old Pine," she answered. " It is only the scientists 
who operate by modes of motion in the books, where alone 
this method of performance has any existence." 

"And yet, Ellen, is it not possible to communicate by modes 
of motion, as in telegraphing? The old Pine thinks that with 
pre-arrangement between parties much if not all information 
might be so communicated." 

"Ellen will admit," she said, "that information may be 
communicated by symbols. But this can be done only through 
pre-arrangement. Surely the old Pine doesn't suppose that 
there is such pre-arrangement on the part of even' individual 
bod\- or thing, does he ? Ellen does not ; but rather that every- 
thing performs its own part. And in this consists the perfection 
of the system used everywhere in nature so far as we know; no 
subterfuges are necessary. Nor does she see how they could 



94 ELLEN OR THE 

well take place. As, for instance, an arrangement being made 
with every individual in the world, and the camphor tree or 
any other body, that certain motions being made by a certain 
— or, as the phraseology of the scientists is, — the appropriate 
nerve, the person should consider or understand that he was 
being treated for some ailment. Ellen thinks the old Pine 
will see that such a system, though it might appear very satis- 
factory to scientists, wouldn't answer at all, or be considered 

* 
at all, by nature; for it wouldn't be worth considering." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



VIII. 

^ T""j UT," I said, "Ellen, the speed of sound is governed by 

*—' the elasticity and density of the media through which 
it passes, is it not?" 

"Ellen thinks not," she answered. "Sound is propagated 
in rubber, which is very elastic, very poorly; and lead, which 
is very dense and inelastic, is a good conductor. Putty, both 
inelastic and dense, is a much better conductor of sound than 
india rubber." 

"Yet all the text books teach this, and would appear to show 
it in their tables." 

" And Ellen thinks there's no truth to it," she said. 

"Then why," I asked, "should scientists so state?" 

"Partly because they don't know any better, and partly 
in their desire to sustain a theory by which they earn their 
bread and butter. For the old Pine must remember that 
most physicists are teachers or lecturers, or both, and get 
their living from their supposed knowledge. And therefore are 
they tempted constantly to assume more knowledge than they 
have, though perhaps many of them are more tempted by their 
vanity ; for many if not most scientists are much influenced by 
vanity. Their highest ambition seems to be to give something 
the poorest possible name, by naming it after themselves." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, perhaps they do this to gain reputa- 
tion, to help them get a living. Surely Ellen wouldn't object 
to such assistance, if it were assistance?" 



98 ELLEN OR THE 

" No," she said ; " if that were the object, Ellen would have a 
certain sympathy with it, although it results in an awfully poor 
name, for which generally the world substitutes something 
better. But Ellen doesn't want them to lie, even for their 
bread and butter. And to her, an hypothesis taught as a 
known principle is a lie. But Mr. Ganot says that the inti- 
mate nature of all those things we are talking about is com- 
pletely unknown, and every intelligent scientist that Ellen has 
ever talked with about undalatory theories, admits that they 
are but hypotheses, and may be wrong. Let them say this to 
their scholars; let them proclaim it in their lectures. Let 
them tell the truth and shame the devil. Let them quit the 
lying; quit it entirely. Never once say that a doubtful thing- 
is so, or an hypothesis a fact, but say that it is doubtful, or, 
like Mr. Ganot, that it is 'completely unknown.' 

" Sound is an entity, radiating in all directions from the 
sounding body under its own laws, which as yet we do not 
understand, nor are we warranted to say that its speed depends 
upon the elasticity and density of the medium through which it 
passes, although it is true that it does depend in some way 
upon the character of this medium, and therefore ma)' depend 
upon its density and elastic force." 

"Then," I said, "this might be true, although the undulatory 
theory were not true." 

"Certainly," she said; "the undulatory theory is not true, 
but the other may be true." 

"But did not Mr. Newton," I asked, "demonstrate that the 
speed of sound, in an elastic fluid, depends upon the elastic 
force and density of the fluid? His formula was that its veloc- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 99 

ity was directly as the subduplicate ratio of the elastic force, 
and inversely as the subduplicate ratio of the density. That is, 
that it was equal to the square root of its elastic force divided 
by the square root of its density." 

''He demonstrated nothing of the kind," she replied, "for 
his theory did not agree with experiment. Mr. Newton in 
his 'Principia' undertakes to derive the laws which govern the 
forces that rule among heavenly bodies. This was a field of his 
own choosing, and is handled with much ability. Many of his 
methods are exceedingly ingenious. All are bold, and show a 
master spirit in mathematics. In section 8, proposition 41, 
he enters upon a discussion of motion propagated in fluids. 
This proposition is: 

1 A pressure is not propagated through a fluid in rectilinear directions, 
unless where the particles of the fluid lie in a right line' (Fig. 4) 

'If the particles a, b, c, d, e, lie in a right line, the pressure may be 
indeed directly propagated from a to e; but then the particle e will urge 




Fig. 4. 



the obliquely posited particles/ and £- obliquely, and those particles/ 
and g will not sustain this pressure, unless they be supported by the par- 
ticles h and k lying beyond them ; but the particles that support them 
are also pressed by them ; and those particles cannot sustain that 



IOO 



ELLEN OR THE 



pressure, without being supported by, and pressing upon,, those particles 
that lie still farther, as / and m, and so on in infinitum. Therefore 
the pressure, as soon as it is propagated to particles that lie out of 
right lines, begins to deflect towards one hand and the other, and will 
be propagated obliquely in infinitum ; and after it has begun to be 
propagated obliquely, if it reaches more distant particles lying out of 
the right line, it will deflect again on each hand ; and this it will do as 
often as it lights on particles that do not lie exactly in a right line. 

' Cor. If any part of a pressure, propagated through a fluid from a 
given point, be intercepted by any obstacle, the remaining part, which 
is not intercepted, will deflect into the spaces behind the obstacle. 



*> 



m 



-^ 



''X % 
NX X %- 

% %> ^ 







^ 4 



V 









VV# V 



^ 



Fig. S. 



This may be demonstrated also after the following manner. Let a 
pressure be propagated from the point A (Fig. 5) towards any part, 
and, if it be possible, in rectilinear directions ; and the obstacle 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 01 

N B C K being perforated in B C, let all the pressure be intercepted 
but the coniform part APQ passing through the circular hole 
B C. Let the cone APQbe divided into frustums by the transverse 
planes de,fg, hi. Then while the cone ABC, propagating the 
pressure, urges the conic frustum degf beyond it on the superficies. 

de, and this frustum urges the next frustum fgih on the superficies 
fg, and that frustum urges a third frustum and so in infinitum ; it is 
manifest (by the third law) that the first frustum defg is, by the 
reaction of the second frustum fghi, as much urged and pressed on 
the superficies fg, as it urges and presses that second frustum. 
Therefore the frustum degf is compressed on both sides, that is, 
between the cone A de and the frustum fh ig; and therefore (by 
case 6, prop. 19) cannot preserve its figure, unless it be compressed 
with the same force on all sides. Therefore with the same force with 
which it is pressed on the superficies de, fg, it will endeavor to break 
forth at the sides df eg; and there (being not in the least tenacious 
or hard, but perfectly fluid) it will run out, expanding itself, unless 
there be an ambient fluid opposing that endeavor. Therefore, by the 
effort it makes to run out, it will press the ambient fluid, at its sides 

df, eg, with the same force that it does the frustum, fgih ; and 
therefore, the pressure will be propagated as much from the sides 
df, eg, into the spaces N O, K L, this way and that way, as it is 
propagated from the superficies/^ towards PQ.' 

" It may be noticed that Mr. Newton nowhere undertakes to 
explain in what manner one particle pushes another, that is, 
whether they hit each other or not ; but judging from the 
whole of these propositions, it is assumed that they do not hit 
each other, but operate in some unexplained way through the. 
interposition of some other substance, or substances, the char- 
acter of which is nowhere mentioned. This, as will be seen, is 



102 



ELLEN OR THE 



entirely opposed to the kinetic theory of gases, now generally 
accepted by scientists. 

' Proposition XLII. All motion propagated through a fluid diverges 
from a rectilinear progress into unmoved spaces. (Fig. 6) 

'Case i. Let a motion be propagated from the point A through the 
hole B C, and, if it be possible, let it proceed in the conic space 
BCQP according to right lines diverging from the point A. And 






% 



O * 



%, 







" Q 



Fig. 6. 

let us first suppose this motion to be that of waves in the surface of 
standing water; and let de, fg, hi, hi, etc. be the tops of the several 
waves, divided from each other by as many intermediate valleys or 
hollows. Then, because the water in the ridges of the waves is higher 
than in the unmoved parts of the fluid K L, N O, it will run down 
from off the tops of those ridges e,g, i, I, etc. d,f, h, k, etc. this way 
and that way towards K L and N O ; and because the water is more 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 103 

depressed in the hollows of the waves than in the unmoved parts of 
the fluid K L, NO, it will run down into those hollows out of those 
unmoved parts. By the first deflux the ridges of the waves will dilate 
themselves this way and that way, and be propagated towards K L and 
N O. And because the motion of the waves from A towards P Q is 
carried on by a continual deflux from the ridges of the waves into the 
hollows next to them, and therefore cannot be swifter than in propor- 
tion to the celerity of the descent ; and the descent of the water on 
each side towards K L and N O must be performed with the same 
velocity; it follows, that the dilatation of the waves on each side 
towards K L and N O will be propagated with the same velocity as the 
waves themselves go forward directly from A to P Q. And therefore 
the whole space this way and that way towards K L and N O will be 
filled by the dilated waves rfgr, skis, tklt, vmnv, etc. 

'That these things are so, any one may find by making the 
experiment in still water. 

'Case 2. Let us suppose that de, fg, hi, kl, mn, represent pulses 
successively propagated from the point A through an elastic medium. 
Conceive the pulses to be propagated by successive condensations and 
rarefactions of the medium, so that the densest part of every pulse may 
occupy a spherical superficies described about the center A, and that 
equal intervals intervene between the successive pulses. Let the lines 
de,fg, hi, kl, etc. represent the densest parts of the pulses, propagated 
through the holeBC; and because the medium is denser there than 
in the spaces on either side towards K L and N O, it will dilate itself 
as well towards those spaces K L, N O, on each hand, as towards the 
rare intervals between the pulses ; and thence the medium, becoming 
always more rare next the intervals, and more dense next the pulses, 
will partake of their motion. And because the progressive motion of 
the pulses arises from the perpetual relaxation of the denser parts 
toward the antecedent rare intervals ; and since the pulses will relax 



104 ELLEN OR THE 

themselves on each hand towards the quiescent parts of the medium 
K L, N O, with very near the same celerity ; therefore the pulses will 
dilate themselves on all sides into the unmoved parts K L, N O, with 
almost the same celerity with which they are propagated directly from 
the centre A \ and therefore will fill up the whole space K L O N. 

'And we find the same by experience also in sounds which are heard 
though a mountain interpose ; and, if they come into a chamber 
through the window, dilate themselves into all the parts of the room, 
and are heard in every corner ; and not as reflected from the opposite 
walls, but directly propagated from the window, as far as our sense 
can judge. 

'Case 3. Let us suppose, lastly, that a motion of any kind is propa- 
gated from A through the hole B C. Then, since the cause of this 
propagation is that the parts of the medium that are near the center A 
disturb and agitate those which lie farther from it • and since the parts 
which are urged are fluid, and therefore recede every way towards 
those spaces where they are less pressed, they will by consequence 
recede towards all the parts of the quiescent medium ; as well to the 
parts on each hand, as K L and N O, as to those right before, as P Q : 
and by this means all the motion, as soon as it has passed through the 
hole B C, will begin to dilate itself, and from thence, as from its 
principle and center, will be propagated directly every way.' 

" The supposed cause of these pulses, — that is, the supposed 
action of elastic force, — is here most plainly pointed out 
and is delightfully refreshing as against the muddled state- 
ments, or no statements at all, of the textbooks: 'And 
because the medium is denser there than in the spaces on 
either side it will dilate itself as well towards those spaces 
on each hand as towards the rare intervals between the 
pulses ; and thence the medium, becoming always more rare 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 105 

next the intervals, and more dense next the pulses, will 
partake of their motion. And because the progressive motion 
of the pulses arises from the perpetual relaxation of the 
denser parts toward the antecedent rare intervals; and 
since the pulses will relax themselves on each hand 
towards the quiescent parts of the medium with very near the 
same celerity ; therefore the pulses will dilate themselves on all 
sides into the unmoved parts with almost the same celerity with 
which they are propagated directly from the centre; and, 
therefore, will fill up the whole space. * * * Then, since 
the cause of this propagation is that the pai'ls of the medium 
that arc near the center disturb and agitate those which lie 
farther from it ; and since the parts which are urged are 
fluid, and therefore recede every way towards those spaces 
where they are less pressed, they will by consequence recede 
towards all the parts of the quiescent medium ; as well to the 
parts on each hand as to those right before, and by this means 
all the motion, as soon as it has passed through the hole, will 
begin to dilate itself, and from thence, as from its principle 
and center, will be propagated directly every way! 

"And this is all there is of it, or all there could be of it. 
Air will dilate and thus cause a pulse, not a wave, if other air 
surrounding it is more rarified than itself. And under 
no other possible circumstances can it do it. This practi- 
cally destroys the undulatory theory of sound. For during a 
large part of the time when sounds occur, the conditions sup- 
posed do not take place, and are impossible. Surrounding 
air is not quiescent, but frequently, if not generally, more 
condensed than the part affected by the sound agitation. 



106 ELLEN OR THE 

This would be especially true of the agitation caused by 
slight sounds, which of necessity would be constantly over- 
whelmed by the greater agitation of larger sounds. And all 
sounds would often, if not generally, find the conditions of the 
atmosphere in respect to density varied, and thus be liable to 
be stopped in their progress at any moment. 

"Were the conditions possible or true, at every meet- 
ing of a condensed wave from some other sound, or from 
any cause whatever, a thing which must constantly take 
place, the motion of our first wave would be retarded, 
and, if the next wave was the larger, be entirely stopped. 
For its motion, being solely caused by its tendency to enter 
the less dense, it could not, of course, advance against 
the more dense. And hence all the smaller sounds, formed or 
half-formed, must be constantly cut off by an instantaneous 
process. If such a condition actually took place, it would also 
be true that the speed of these waves (or, the speed of sound) 
would depend upon the strength of the compression, and 
therefore would vary continuously, which it does not in fact do." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, by Boyle's law, compression and 
density balance each other, do they not?" 

"Sometimes they do," she answered. "In the conditions 
now supposed there is no evidence that they could, though this 
proposition of Mr. Newton's rests upon the assumption that the 
elastic force of air is equal to its condensation. 

"Newton was born in 1642, and published the 'Principia' in 
1687. Ganot says : 

'The law of the compressibility of gases was discovered by Boyle in 
1662, and afterwards independently by Mariotte in 1679. It is in 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 107 

England commonly called " Boyle's Law," and on the Continent 
" Mariotte's Law." It is as follows : 

' The temperature remaining the same, the volume of a given quantity 
in gas is inversely as the pressure which it bears. 

' This law may be verified by means of an apparatus devised by Boyle. 

******** 

' The law also holds good in the case of pressures of less than one 
atmosphere. 5 

"But only one instance is given of this, viz.: air in a tube 
under pressure of half an atmosphere. 

' In the experiment with Boyle's tube, as the mass of air remains the 
same, its density must obviously increase as its volume diminishes, and 
vice versa. The law may thus be enunciated : — " For the same tem- 
perature the density of a gas is proportional to its pressure.'" 1 Hence, 
as water is 773 times as heavy as air, under a pressure of 773 atmos- 
pheres air would be as dense as water.' 

"This law is founded upon experiments and is known to be 
true only so far as the conditions are such as existed when the 
experiments were tried. 

"But these conditions in all cases were that the gas consid- 
ered was all subjected to equal pressure. And hence the 
experiments, and therefore the law founded upon them, can not 
be applied to these hypothetical condensations and rarefactions. 
For in this case the whole body of air considered is not sub- 
jected to equal pressure. But, on the contrary, by the 
hypothesis it is subjected to unequal pressure. And, therefore, 
with no known principle preventing, it would be fairly pre- 
sumable that the speed of such condensations, did they exist, 
would vary with the force making them. Besides, further 



I08 ELLEN OR THE 

experiments demonstrated that Boyle's law is not always 
correct. And this especially enforces the fact that the law can 
be relied upon only so far as demonstrated by experiment. 
Mr. Ganot says : 

'The general result of these experiments is to show that at high 
pressures the volume is greater than that required by Boyle's law, 
agreeing in this respect with hydrogen at ordinary pressures. This is 
well illustrated by the deportment of ethylene as given in the following 
table, where P is the pressure in metres of mercury, and PV the pro- 
duct of pressure into volume, which according to Boyle's law should be 
constant : 

Pressure 24 34-8 45-1 55-4 64 72 84 134 214 303 
PV 21-5 18-4 12-3 9-8 9-4 9-7 10-7 15-1 22-t 29-3 

'It will thus be seen that the product PV decreases with increasing 
pressure to a minimum, and then increases again with the pressure. 

' The pressure at which this minimum of compressibility occurs is 
different with different gases, as is also the extent of the deviation from 
the law. 

'At a temperature of 200 this minimum occurs at the following pres- 
sures in metres of mercury : nitrogen and carbonic oxide 50, air and 
ethylene 65, oxygen 100, and marsh gas 120.' 

"It will be seen from Mr. Newton's remarks in the above 
propositions, that in proposition 41 he indirectly suggests the 
difficulty of many consecutive particles lying in a straight line, 
saying that if they did so lie the pressure would indeed be propa- 
gated ; but that the particles would urge the obliquely posited 
particles, and therefore the pressure soon begin to deflect in all 
directions without limit. 

"That the particles do not to any great extent lie in straight 
lines is proven, according to this hypothesis, from the fact that 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE III 

sound goes in all directions. The corollary of this proposition 
proves that if a pressure should be in part intercepted, the other 
portion of it would obey this same law; or generally, as the 
proposition, that any unintercepted pressure in a quiescent fluid 
spreads in all directions. And this from a corollary of the prin- 
ciple that there is equal pressure in all directions in a quiescent 
fluid. For in such a fluid resistance is equal in all directions. 
"According, then, to these propositions of Mr. Newton of 
the motion of sound waves and the cause of mem, they can 
advance *so far and only so far as the air in front of them is 
quiescent or less compressed than themselves, being stopped 
entirely by air of equally compressed condition and annihi- 
lated by that of more. This, indeed, Mr. Newton admits in 
proposition 41, corollary, when he says: 'Unless there be 
an ambient fluid opposing that endeavor.' But everywhere 
many sounds are constantly taking place, and often at the same 
time, some more and some less intense. If the undulatory 
theory was true, as explained here by Mr. Newton, sounds could 
not pass each other, but would stop, and most sounds, or at 
least many, could be heard but very short distances, or indeed 
not at all. But this we know is not true, but that instead 
sounds pass each other, little sounds and greater sounds, and 
will be heard always, or at least generally, for distances propor- 
tional to their intensity. And so again the theory is demon- 
strated not only to be untrue but to be impossible, and one that 
no sensible person could continue to consider. Surely the old 
Pine is satisfied with these insurmountable objections to the 
theory, and will let Ellen now discuss something worth dis- 
cussing;." 



I 12 ELLEN OR THE 



IX. 

^HPHE old Pine sees that Ellen is right," I said, "and that 
-*• there is no possible explanation of the difficulties which 
Ellen suggests; that any theory containing them is not only 
impossible but idiotic. And yet as the whole scientific world 
is teaching it, and as it is very difficult always for people to get 
out of a rut, the old Pine hopes that Ellen will still further ex- 
pose its inconsistencies." 

"Very well," she said. "In the demonstration Mr. Newton 
applied the third law of motion to air. The inference is that 
he supposed all the laws of motion to apply to air, as indeed, 
from the way in which they are stated, they would appear to= 
But, if these particles hit each other, it would be impossible 
to explain the system of air waves contemplated in this 
theory, by the laws of motion. For by the theory the 
particles vibrate, and go at a speed much faster than the 
vibrating body; but by the laws of motion these particles, 
being presumably of the same size, if elastic, would move 
at the speed of the vibrating body, imparting this same speed 
to other particles which they might hit, and come themselves 
to rest. The particles which they hit would do likewise, and 
this process be continued until the motion was destroyed by 
friction. If inelastic, two equal particles hitting would con- 
tinue together at half speed. It is evident, then, that 
according to the kinetic theory, in which the particles are sup- 
posed to* hit, in some way the laws of motion are superseded, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I 1 3 

if this undulatory theory is true. Mr. Newton does not discuss 
this part of the subject. He mentions particles of air, but 
apparently supposes or assumes that they are permanently 
separated by some expansive and contractile substance or sub- 
stances which he calls lineolae. If this was a fact such sub- 
stance must itself be composed of particles or little bodies 
disconnected, — else how could we breath it, or live in it, — and 
these particles like all matter be either elastic or inelastic?" 

"But it is supposed, is it not, Ellen," I said, "that elastic 
force comes into action, introducing the oscillatory conditions, 
and also accounting for the speed?" 

"The oscillatory motion is impossible," she replied, "except 
through the action of at least two reciprocal forces, but Ellen 
cannot see that there are any equal reciprocal forces after the 
sound leaves the sounding body. For then its onward progress 
in every direction is both constant and rapid, being in that re- 
spect entirely different from the motion of the sounding body. 

"But Ellen will again — because it won't hurt the old 
Pine a bit, if she duplicates a little — call attention to the 
fact that, in these propositions of Mr. Newton, the cause 
of the supposed movement of air waves is repeatedly given as 
in proposition 42 : 

' And because the progressive motion of the pulses arises from the 
perpetual relaxation of the denser parts towards the antecedent rare 
intervals.' 

"And again : 

' Then since the cause of this propagation is, that the parts of the 
medium that are near the center A disturb and agitate those which lie 



114 ELLEN OR THE 

farther from it ; and since the parts which are urged are fluid, and there- 
fore recede every way towards those spaces where they are less pressed, 
they will by consequence recede towards all the parts of the quiescent 
medium. * * * And by this means all the motion, as soon as it 
has passed through the hole B C, will begin to dilate itself, etc.' 

"It is quite . refreshing to find thus an honest and able 
man who in this extraordinary theory of sound was not afraid 
to state how he believed it to be accomplished ; although 
we can hardly wonder that text books and lecturers on sound 
omit all this, when it is so evident that such explanation 
disproves the theory. Present text books are satisfied with 
stating an incredible theory without undertaking to explain the 
method of it, because there is no explanation possible. 

"It is only 1 ' partially true that sound dilates into the sur- 
rounding air, as witness the following account of the use of a 
megaphone for warning in fogs : 

' Guilford, Conn., Oct. 14, 1899. 

'At the Government lighthouse station on Falkner's Island, which is 
directly off this coast, there has just been erected the largest megaphone 
in the world." It is seventeen feet long and seven feet in diameter at 
the mouth. It stands upon a circular platform twenty-eight feet in 
diameter, upon which it revolves. 

' The plan is to direct it toward the eight principal points of the com- 
pass, one after the other in regular rotation, and by means of a different 
signal sent in each of these eight directions to tell any vessel which may 
be in the line of the axis of the instrument during a fog the exact posi- 
tion of the signal station with relation to the ship. 

1 The great difficulty with sound signals as aids to navigation in a fog is 
that they cannot be located with any accuracy. Cases are on record in 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I 1 5 

which two officers standing on the bridge of the same steamer have dif- 
fered as much as ninety degrees in their estimate -of the direction of a 
fog whistle which was distinctly heard by both of them. It is common 
for a vessel to be kept on its course under the impression that a certaii 
signal is several points on the bow, when as a matter of fact it is dead 
ahead. If sound signals could be located in a fog, navigation would be 
much less dangerous. 

' The apparatus which has just been erected at Falkner's Island, and 
which is the invention of R. F„ Foster, is intended to locate the signal 
station accurately. When the huge megaphone is due north of any 
vessel, the ship will hear the north signal, a short, a long and short blast. 
If it is due west of a ship, the vessel will hear three short blasts, and so 
on, with a different combination of long and short blasts for each of the 
eight points of the compass. The signals are fifteen seconds apart, and 
the apparatus makes a complete revolution in two minutes. 

' In order to facilitate the recollection of the code, all the sounds which 
indicate the general direction of west begin with a short blast, and all 
those indicating the general direction of east begin with a long blast. 
The south signals are all shorter than those farther north. 

' When the first tests were made the sounding instrument used was one 
of the smallest sirens which could be procured, and was blown with 
steam at forty pounds and fed with an inch-and-a-half pipe. This is 
only one- twentieth of the power of the sirens at Sandy Hook, Block 
Island, and Beaver Tail. When this little siren was blown through the 
seventeen-foot megaphone it was found to be almost equal in power to 
the ten-inch locomotive whistle which is part of the regular installation 
on the island, and it could be distinctly heard at a distance of ten miles, 
provided the listener was in a line with the axis of the megaphone. 

' All that was asserted by the inventor was that the sound waves com- 
ing directly toward the observer could be readily distinguished from 
those sent forty-five degrees from him, no matter how far he was from 
the source of the sound. 



I 1 6 ELLEN OR THE 

'The unofficial tests were made on Wednesday by C. Lamy of the 
Lighthouse establishment, on board the Government boat Mistletoe, 
the inventor being accompanied in a steam launch by E. B. Merriman 
of Boston, who built the megaphone, and Reuben E. Hill of Guilford. 

' To the surprise of all it was found that so far from the sounds sent at 
an angle of forty-five degrees being nearly equal to those sent directly 
toward the observer, they were absolutely inaudible at all distances 
beyond a mile, and even at half a mile it required the closest attention 
to hear them at all, while the sounds coming directly toward the list- 
eners were extremely powerful up to eight miles, and at the shorter 
distances of one or two miles almost equal to the immense steam whistle, 
which was sounded immediately after the megaphone so that those in 
the boat might judge of their comparative strength. 

' These experiments completely upset all the preconceived ideas of 
men who have made a life-long study of the peculiarities of sound, 
because they show that it is possible to l confine a sound, even so 
powerful as that from a siren, and to project it into space in a given 
direction with the same certainty and accuracy that we can project the 
rays of a searchlight. 

'This being so, there can be no doubt of the possibility of sending a 
message to a vessel in a fog by means of a varying sound with abso- 
lutely as much precision as it could be sent in clear weather by means 
of a flashing searchlight. If a vessel hears one of these signals, which 
says " North," it may be certain that the signal it hears lies directly 
north of it, because if it did not the north signal could not be heard 
at all. 

' There are many other uses to which it is proposed to put this system 
of signalling, such as sending messages from one part of the army to 
another in the field without any risk of the enemy's reading them, as 
t hey now do flag signals, because no one not in the direct line of the 
axis of the megaphone could hear anything. The same system can be 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK I I J 

used in signalling from one vessel to another in thick weather so as to 
avoid collisions.' — Sun. 

" From this account the old Pine will see that sound will act 
like shot or any other entity. Thus, if shot be placed upori 
paper spread over gunpowder lying upon the ground, and the 
powder be ignited, the shot will be thrown in all directions; 
but if placed in a gun, they will be sent in the direction of the 
barrel." 

"But, Ellen, shot thus sent will constantly vary \\\ 
velocity." 

"Yes," she said, "for they depend for their motion upon the 
force of the gunpowder, and are retarded by friction of the air; 
but, as Ellen thinks, sound, like electricity or light, carries its 
motive power within itself. 

" It is true that sounds, coming into a chamber through a 
window, dilate or spread themselves. But that doesn't show 
that the air is anywhere either condensed or rarefied, but rather 
that sound, like odor, is conducted through the air in all 
directions. 

* Proposition XL1II. — Every tremulous body in an elastic medium 
propagates the motion of the pulses on every side right forward ; but 
in a non-elastic medium excites a circular motion. 

'Case i. The parts of the tremulous body alternately going and 
returning, do in going urge and drive before them those parts of the 
medium that lie nearest, and by that impulse compress and condense 
them ; and in returning suffer those compressed parts to recede again, 
and expand themselves. Therefore the parts of the medium that lie 
nearest to the tremulous body move to and fro by turns, in like manner 



Il8 ELLEN OR THE 

as the parts of the tremulous body itself do; and for the same cause 
that the parts of this body agitate these parts of the medium, these 
parts, being agitated by like tremors, will in their turn agitate others 
next to themselves ; and these others, agitated in like manner, will agi- 
tate those that lie beyond them, and so on in infinitum. And in the same 
manner as the first parts of the medium were condensed in going, 
and relaxed in returning, so will the other parts be condensed every 
time they go, and expand themselves every time they return. And 
therefore they will not be all going and all returning at the same instant 
(for in that case they would always preserve determined distances from 
each other, and there could be no alternate condensation and rarefac- 
tion) ; but since, in the places where they are condensed, they approach 
to, and, in the places where they are rarefied, they recede from each 
other, therefore some of them will be going while others are returning ; 
and so on in infinitum. The parts so going, and in their going con- 
densed, are pulses, by reason of the progressive motion with which they 
strike obstacles in their way ; and therefore the successive pulses pro- 
duced by a tremulous body will be propagated in rectilinear directions ; 
and that at nearly equal distances from each other, because of the equal 
intervals of time in which the body, by its several tremors, produces the 
several pulses. And though the parts of the body go and return in 
some certain and determinate direction, yet the pulses propagated from 
thence through the medium will dilate themselves towards the sides, by 
the foregoing proposition ; and will be propagated on all sides from 
that tremulous body, as from a common centre, in superficies nearly 
spherical and concentrical. An example of this we have in waves 
excited by shaking a finger in water, which proceed not only forwards 
and backwards agreeably to the motion of the finger, but spread them- 
selves in the manner of concentric circles all round the finger, and are 
propagated on every side. For the gravity of the water supplies the 
place of elastic force.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I 1 9 

"In case 2 of this proposition, Mr. Newton gives the com- 
mon sense and correct phenomenon happening when any body 
is thrown into the air, or vibrates in it. And this because of 
the mobility of the air, a feature that is as much a part of this 
problem as light is of creation, but which physicists, with a 
stupidity that is idiotic, neglect to consider. It is as follows : 

'Case 2. If the medium be not elastic, then, because its parts can- 
not be condensed by the pressure arising from the vibrating parts of the 
tremulous body, the motion will be propagated in an instant towards the 
parts where the medium yields most easily, that is, to the parts which 
the tremulous body would otherwise leave vacuous behind it. The case 
is the same with that of a body projected in any medium whatever, A 
medium yielding to projectiles does not recede in infinitum, but with a 
circular motion comes round to the spaces which the body leaves 
behind it. Therefore as often as a tremulous body tends to any part, 
the medium yielding to it comes round in a circle to the parts which 
the body leaves ; and as often as the body returns to the first place, the 
medium will be driven from the place it came round to, and return to 
its original place. And though the tremulous body be not firm and 
hard, but every way flexible, yet if it continue of a given magnitude, 
since it cannot impel the medium by its tremors anywhere without 
yielding to it somewhere else, the medium receding from the parts of 
the body where it is pressed will always come round in a circle to the 
parts that yield to it.' 

" If the first part of this proposition were true, as all particles 
of air are supposed to be set in motion by every sound in the 
many directions in which they lie from the sounding body, 
and, as almost everywhere, certainly in many places, there 
are many sounds constantly taking place at the same 



120 ELLEN OR THE 

« 

instant, these particles of air would have to go in several 
directions and, indeed, often in every conceivable direction at 
the same instant — a thing that they certainly do not do. Or 
else the laws of sound would have to be constantly suspended; 
and when you rang a bell, or struck a piano, the expected 
result would materialize only when the air surrounding the 
striking body was not otherwise occupied. 

"Case 2 of the proposition is applied first to an inelastic 
medium. But note that Mr. Newton says : ' The case is the same 
with that of a body projected in any medium ivhatcver. A 
medium yielding to projectiles does not recede in infinitum, but 
with a circular motion comes round to the spaces which the body 
leaves bcliind it. Therefore as often as a tremulous body tends 
to any part, the medium yielding to it comes round in a circle to 
the parts which the body leaves ; and as often as the body returns 
io the first place, the medium will be driven from the place it 
came round to, and return to its original place. And though 
the tremulous body be not firm and hard, but every way flexible, 
yet if it continue of a given magnitude, since it cannot impel 
the medium by its tremors anywhere without yielding to it some- 
where else, the medium receding from the parts of the body 
where it is pressed will alivays come round in a circle to the. 
parts that yield to it! 

"This is the exact truth, and covers the whole case of 
sonorous vibrations.* It is hardly possible that it could be 
more forcibly or accurately stated, and it places Mr. Newton, 
although he did not recognize it, absolutely on the right side in 
sound, as well as in light. For a vibrating is a tremulous body, 
and admitting that such a body cannot create a system of con- 



K 




WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 123 

densations and rarefactions of the air, for the reason given, 
'projected in any medium whatever' there remains no other 
theory of sound but the corpuscular, harmonizing, as is most 
appropriate, with Mr. Newton's corpuscular theory of light. 
Had Mr. Newton himself applied the reasoning to this theory 
of sound, it would almost certainly have ended the whole 
matter forever. Failing to do this, the world could not help 
perceiving that sound and light are governed by similar laws, 
and, obliged to quit Mr. Newton as to one of them and led by 
incompetent men, it blundered on the wrong sider But, as 
Ellen thinks, the mistake will be comparatively short-lived. 
" Proposition 44 refers to water in a canal, and is unimportant. 

'Proposition XLV. — The velocity of waves is in the subduplicate ratio 
of the breadths \_that is in the ratio of square roof\. 

'This follows from the construction of the following proposition. 

'Proposition XLV I. — To find the velocity of waves. 

' Let a pendulum be constructed, whose length between the point of 
suspension and centre of oscillation is equal to the breadth of the 
waves ; and in the time that the pendulum will perform one single 
oscillation the waves will advance forward nearly a space equal to their 
breadth. 

'That which I call the breadth of the waves is the transverse measure 
lying between the deepest part of the hollows, or the tops of the ridges. 
Let ABC DEL (Fig. 7) represent the surface of stagnant water 
ascending and descending in successive waves ; and let A, C, E, etc., 
be the tops of the waves ; and let B, D, F, etc., be the intermediate 
hollows. Because the motion of the waves is carried on by successive 
ascent and descent of the water, so that the parts thereof, as A, C, E, 



124 ELLEN OR THE 

etc., which are highest at one time become lowest immediately after ; 
and because the motive force, by which the highest parts descend and 
the lowest ascend, is the weight of the elevated water, that alternate 
ascent and descent will be analogous to the reciprocal motion of the 
water in the canal, and observe the same laws as to the times of its 
ascent and descent; and therefore (by Prop. 44) if the distances 
between the highest places of the waves A, C, E, and the lowest B, D, F, 
be equal to twice the length of any pendulum, the highest parts A, C, E 
will become the lowest in the time of one oscillation, and in the time of 

EC JL 



D 

Fig. 7. 

another oscillation will ascend again. Therefore between the passage 
of each wave the time of two oscillations will intervene ; that is, the 
wave will describe its breadth in the time that the pendulum will oscillate 
twice ; but a pendulum of four times that length, and which therefore 
is equal to the breadth of the waves, will just oscillate once in that time. 

'Cor. 1. Therefore waves whose breadth is equal to 3^ French 
feet will advance through a space equal to their breadth in one second 
of time (for a pendulum of 3 T 1 g - French feet will oscillate in one second 
of time) ; and therefore in one minute will go over a space of 183!- feet; 
and in an hour a space of 11,000 feet, nearly. 

' Cor. 2. And the velocity of greater or less waves will be augmented 
or diminished in the subduplicate [square root] ratio of their breadth. 

' These things are true upon the supposition that the parts of water 
ascend or descend in a right line ; but, in truth, that ascent and descent 
is rather performed in a circle ; and therefore I propose the time 
defined by the proposition as only near the truth.' 

"This is a demonstration that water waves vary in speed 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I 25 

with their size, and of course the hypothetical sound waves, if 
like them, should do the same. Water waves have a maxi- 
mum limit of speed of about 72 feet a second ; and they affect 
the body of the water to only a comparatively slight depth. It 
will be noticed that Mr. Newton in this proposition correctly 
describes the operation of water waves : ' Because the motion 
of the waves is carried 011 by successive ascent and descent of 
the water, so that the parts which are highest at one time 
became lowest immediately after ; and because the motive force, 
by which the highest parts descend and the lowest ascen^, is 
the weight of the elevated water. 

' Proposition XLVII. — If pulses arc propagated through a flidd, the 
several particles of the fluid, going and returning with the shortest 
reciprocal motion, are always accelerated or retarded according to the 
law of the oscillating pendulu?n. (Fig. 8) 

' Let A B, B C, C D, etc., represent equal distances of successive pulses ; 
ABC the line of direction of the motion of the successive pulses propa- 
gated from A to B ; E, F, G, three physical points of the quiescent 
medium situated in the right line A C at equal distances from each 
other ; Ee, Ff Gg, equal spaces of extreme shortness, through which 
those points go and return with a reciprocal motion in each vibration ; 
t, <$>, y, any intermediate places of the same points ; E F, F G, physical 
lineolae, or linear parts of the medium lying between those points, and 
successively transferred into the places e 4>, <f> y, and effg. Let there 
be drawn the right line P S equal to the right line Ec. Bisect 
the same in O, and from the centre O, with the interval O P, describe 
the circle SIP/. Let the whole time of one vibration, with its propor- 
tional parts, be expounded by the whole circumference of this circle 
and its parts, in such sort, that, when any time PH or P H Sh . is com- 
pleted, if there be let fall to PS the perpendicular H L or h I, and there 



2.6 



ELLEN OR THE 



HI 



/ 



XL-. 



p.. 



iiiu 



Fig. 




be taken Ec equal to P L or P/, the physical point E may be found in e. 

A point, as E, moving ac- 
cording to this law with a 
reciprocal motion, in its 
going from E through e to 
e, and returning again 
through e to E, will per- 
form its several vibrations 
with the same degrees of 
acceleration and retarda- 
tion with those of an oscillating pendulum. We 
are now to prove that the several physical points 
of the medium will be agitated with such a kind 
of motion. Let us suppose, then, that a medium 
hath such a motion excited in it from any cause 
whatsoever, and consider what will follow from 
thence. 

•In the circumference PHS/f let these be taken 
the equal arcs HI, IK, or hi, ik, having the same 
ratio to the whole circumference as the equal right 
lines E F, F G have to B C, the whole interval of 
the pulses. Let fall the perpendiculars I M, K N, 
or im, kit ; then because the points E,F,G are 
successively agitated with like motions, and per- 
form their entire vibrations composed of their 
going and return, while the pulse is transferred 
from B to C ; if P H or PHS/£ be the time elapsed 
since the beginning of the motion of the point 
E, then will PI or P H S i be the time elapsed since 



the beginning of the motion of the point F, and P K 



or PHS/& the time elapsed since the beginning of the motion of the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE \2J 

point G ; and therefore Ee, F<£, Gy will be respectively equal to PL, 
PM, PN, while the points are going, and to P/, Pw, P/z, when the 
points are returning. Therefore ey or EG-|-Gy — Ee will, when the 
points are going, be equal to EG — LN, and in their return equal to 
EG-f-/«. But ey is the breadth or expansion of the part EG of the. 
medium in the place ey; and therefore the expansion of that part in 
its going is to its mean expansion as EG — LN to EG ; and in its 
return, as EG~\-/n or EG-j-LN to EG. Therefore since LN is to KH as 
IM to the radius OP, and KH to EG as the circumference PHS/^P to 
BC [by hypothesis] ; that is, if we put V for the radius of a circle 
whose circumference is equal to BC the interval of the pulses, as OP 
to V [radii of circles are as their circumferences] ; and, ex aequo, 
LN to EG as IM to V; the expansion of the part EG, or of the 
physical point F in the place ey, to the mean expansion of the 
same part in its first place EG, will be as V — IM to V in going, and 
as \-\-irti to V in its return. Hence the elastic force of the 
point F in the place ey to its mean elastic force in the place EG 

is as — — — - to — - in its going, and as . ■ , . to — in its return for 
V — IM V \-\-im V 

the elastic force of a gas is inversely as its volume]. And by the 

same reasoning the elastic forces of the physical points E and G 

in going are as and to TrJ an( ^ tne difference of the 

V — HL \ — KN V 

forces to the mean elastic force of the medium as 

HL— KN 1 . . . HL— KN . 1 

VV-VXHL-VXKN+HI^<KN t0 V ; that "* aS VV tQ V 

or as HL — KN to V ; if we suppose (by reason of the very short extent 
of the vibrations) HL and KN to be indefinitely less than the quan- 
tity V. Therefore since the quantity V is given [constant], the differ- 
ence of the forces is as HL — KN ; that is (because HL — KN is 
proportional to HK, and OM to 01 or OP; and because HK and 
OP are given) as OM ; that is, if F/ be bisected in 0, as S2<£. And 



128 - ELLEN OR THE 

for the same reason the difference of the elastic forces of the physical 
points c and y, in the return of the physical lineola ey, is as 0</>. 
But that difference (that is, the excess of the elastic force of the point 
e above the elastic force of the point y) is the very force by which the 
intervening physical lineola ey of the medium is 1 accelerated in going, 
and retarded in returning ; and therefore the accelerative force of 
the physical lineola e y is as its distance from fl, the middle place of 
the vibration. Therefore (by prop. 38 > book 1) the time is rightly 
expounded by the arc PI ; and the linear part of the medium € y is 
moved according to the law above mentioned, that is, according to the 
law of a pendulum oscillating ; and the case is the same of all the linear 
parts of which the whole medium is compounded. 

' Cor. Hence it appears that the number of the pulses propagated is 
the same with the number of the vibrations of the tremulous body, and 
is not multiplied in their progress. For the physical lineola ey as 
soon as it returns to its first place is at rest ; neither will it move again, 
unless it receives a new motion either from the impulse of the tremulous 
body, or of the pulses propagated from that body. As soon, therefore, 
as the pulses cease to be propagated from the tremulous body, it will 
return to a state-of rest, and move no more.' " 

"And how are all these equations derived, Ellen? " 
"The equation LN : KH::IM : OP is derived by drawing 
a perpendicular from K to HL, at a point that we will call X, 
and a chord from K to H. We would then have two triangles 
HKX and IOM, whose corresponding sides are perpendicular 
to each other ; for the radius IO bisecting the arc KH is per- 
pendicular to the chord of that arc, OM is perpendicular to HL 
by construction, and IM being parallel to HL is perpendicular 
to KX. Therefore the triangles are similar and their homolo* 
'gdus sides proportional. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 29 

"The equation LN : EG::IM : V is obtained by multiplying 
together the corresponding terms of the two proportions, LN : 
KH::IM : OP and KH : EG:: OP: V, and dividing both terms 
of the first ratio by KH, and both terms of the second ratio by 
OP. In doing this Mr. Newton, following the usual custom in 
the differential calculus of neglecting small differences, assumes 
that KH, which represents a chord in the first proportion, is 
equal to KH representing an arc in the second, which is not 
true. 

" It will be perceived here that Mr. Newton speaks of the 
space between E and G (which includes the particle F and the 
so-called lineolae EF and FG) and F, which he here calls a. 
point, as synonymous, — not an accurate manner of descrip- 
tion, or indeed an allowable one, although in harmony with the 
methods used in calculus. For if the line<?\ae are something, 
they and the point F can not be the same as the point F, and 
if they are nothing they can not expand and contract. 

"The proportion LN:EG::IM: V becomes by division EG 
-LN : EG:: V-IM : V and by composition EG+LN : EG:: V+ 
IM:V. In the last two proportions the first terms represent 
the volumes of equal portions of air at ey when the particles 
are going and returning respectively and EG represents the 
volume of the same quantity of air at normal pressure. 

"To obtain the expression for the difference of the elastic 
forces at E and G, let the elastic force of the air in 
the place e be represented by (E), the elastic force of the 
air in the place y be represented by (G) and the mean elastic 

force of undisturbed air by (M). Then (E) : (M) : 



V-HL 



ISO ELLEN OR THE 

: — , also (G) : (M) :: : —-. If we subtract the ratios 

V V — KN V 

in the second proportion from the corresponding ratios in the 
first, we have (E) — (G) : (M) :: : , or per- 



forming the subtraction, 



V-HL V-KN ' V 
V-KN-V+HL 



(V-HL) (V-KN) V 

1 ; orifwedropVXHL.V 



W-VXKN-VXHL+HLXKN ' V 

XKN and HLXKN, as they are small compared with VV, and 

then clear of fractions we have (E)-(G) : (M)::HL-KN : V. 

"Here again Mr. Newton throws out certain small quantities, 
namely, VXHL, VXKN and HLXKN in the denominator of 
the above fraction, on the plea that they are very small and 
therefore omitting them would not very much affect the result. 
At the same time he preserves in the numerator the expression 
HL — KN which of necessity must be less than the quantities 
thrown out, and indeed less than VXHL or VXKN s*eparately, 
and might be less than HLXKN. Certainly there can hardly 
be a smaller quantity than the hypothetical difference between 
the displacements of two contiguous particles in these supposed 
oscillations. This illustrates the inaccurate character of much 
of the mathematics which is employed in such demonstrations. 

"Again, (E) — (G) : the mean elastic force ::HL — KN : V, in 
which, since the mean elastic force and V are both constant, 
(E)-(G) varies as HL-KN. But HL-KN : HK::OM : OI 
(by similar triangles), in which HK and OI are in a constant 
ratio; therefore HL — KN varies as OM, or (E) — (G) varies as 
OM or 0<£. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE IJl 

"This is Mr. Newton's most important theorem on sound. 
There follows : 

* Proposition XLVIII. — The velocities of pulses propagated in an elastic 
fluid are in a ratio compounded of tlie subduplicate ratio of the 
elastic force directly, and the subduplicate ratio of the density 
inversely; supposing the elastic force of the fluid to be proportional U 
its condensation. 

'Cask i. If the mediums be homogeneous, and the distances of the 
pulses in those mediums be equal amongst themselves, but the motion 
in one medium is more intense than in the other, the contractions and 
dilatations of the correspondent parts will be as those motions : not 
that this proportion is perfectly accurate. However, if the contractions 
and dilatations are not exceedingly intense, the error will not be sen- 
sible ; and therefore this proportion may be considered as physically 
exact. Now the motive elastic forces are as the contractions and 
dilatations ; and the velocities generated in the same time in equal parts 
are as the forces. Therefore equal and corresponding parts of corre- 
sponding pulses will go and return together, through spaces propor- 
tional to their contractions and dilatations, with velocities that are as 
those spaces ; and therefore the pulses, which in the time of one going 
and returning advance forwards a space equal to their breadth, and are 
always succeeding into the places of the pulses that immediately go 
before them, will, by reason of the equality of the distances, go forward 
in both mediums with equal velocity. 

'Case 2. If the distances of the pulses or their lengths are greater in 
one medium than in another, let us suppose that the correspondent 
parts describe spaces, in going and returning, each time proportional to 
the breadths of the pulses ; then will their contractions and dilatations 
be equal ; and therefore if the mediums are homogeneous, the motive 
elastic forces, which agitate them with a reciprocal motion, will be equal. 



132 ELLEN OR THE 

also. Now the matter to be moved by these forces is as the breadth of 
the pulses ; and the space through which they move every time they go 
and return is in the same ratio. And, moreover, the time of one going 
and returning is in a ratio compounded of the subduplicate ratio of the 
matter, and the subduplicate ratio of the space ; and therefore is as the 
space. But the pulses advance a space equal to their breadths in the 
times of going once and returning once ; that is, they go over spaces 
proportional to the times, and therefore are equally swift. 

'Case 3. And therefore in mediums of equal density and elastic 
force, all the pulses are equally swift. Now if the density or the elastic 
force of the medium were augmented, then, because the motive force is 
increased in the ratio of the elastic force, and the matter to be moved is 
increased in the ratio of the density, the time which is necessary for 
producing the same motion as before will be increased in the subdupli- 
cate ratio of the density, and will be diminished in the subduplicate 
ratio of the elastic force. And therefore the velocity of the pulses will 
be in a ratio compounded of the subduplicate ratio [ratio of square 
root] of the density of the medium inversely, and the subduplicate ratio 
of the elastic force directly. This proposition will be made more clear 
from the construction of the following problem.' 

Proposition XLIX. — The density and elastic force of a medium being 
given , to find the velocity of the pulses. 

' Suppose the medium to be pressed by an' incumbent weight after 
the manner of our air ; and let A be the height of a homogeneous 
medium, whose weight is equal to the incumbent weight, and whose 
density is the same with the density of the compressed medium in 
which the pulses are propagated. Suppose a pendulum to be con- 
structed whose length between the point of suspension and the centre 
of oscillation is A : and in the time in which that pendulum will perform 
one entire oscillation composed of its going and returning, the pulse 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 35 

will be propagated right onwards through a space equal to the circum- 
ference of a circle described with the radius A. 

'For, letting those things stand which were constructed in prop. 47, 
if any physical line, as EF (Fig. 8), describing the space PS in.; 
each vibration, be acted on in the extremities P and S of every going 
and return that it makes by an elastic force that is equal to its weight, 
it will perform its several vibrations in the time in which the same 
might oscillate in a cycloid whose whole perimeter is equal to the length 
PS ; and that because equal forces will impel equal corpuscles through 
equal spaces in the same or equal times. Therefore since the times of 
the oscillations are in the subduplicate ratio of the lengths of the pen- 
dulums [as proved in mechanics], and the length of the pendulum is 
equal to half the arc of the whole cycloid, the time of one vibration 
would be to the time of the oscillation of a pendulum whose length is 
A in the subduplicate ratio of the length ^ PS or PO to the length A. 
But the elastic force with which the physical lineola EG is urged, when 
it is found in its extreme places P, S, was (in the demonstration of 
Prop. 47) to its whole elastic force as HL — KN to V, that is (since the 
point K now falls upon P), as HK to V [since sine (HL) and chord 
(HK) of a very small arc may be considered equal to each other and 
KN=0] : and all that force, or, which is the same thing, the incum- 
bent weight by which the lineola EG is compressed, is to the weight 
of the lineola as the altitude A of the incumbent weight to EG the 
length of the lineola [see hypothesis] ; and therefore, ex aequo, the 
force with which the lineola EG is urged in the places P and S is to 
the weight of that lineola as HKxA toVxEG [multiplying first and 
last proportions together and reducing] ; or as PO X A to VV ; because 
HK was to EG as PO to V [similar arcs are as their radii]. Therefore 
since the times in which equal bodies are impelled through equal spaces 
are reciprocally in the subduplicate ratio of the forces [as proved in 
mechanics], the time of one vibration, produced by the action of 



1 36 ELLEN OR THE 

that elastic force, will be to the time of a vibration, produced by the 
impulse of the weight in a subduplicate ratio of VV to PO X A, and 
therefore to the time of the oscillation of a pendulum whose length is A 
in the subduplicate ratio of VV to PO X A, and the subduplicate ratio of 
PO to A conjunctly [multiply the last proportion by the following and 
reduce : time of a vibration of EG due to its weight : time of vibration 
of a pendulum of length A::y/OP : y'A] ; that is, in the entire ratio of 
V to A. But in the time of one vibration composed of the going and 
returning of the pendulum, the pulse will be propagated right onwards 
through a space equal to its breadth BC. Therefore the time in 
which a pulse runs over the space BC is to the time of one oscilla- 
tion composed of the going and returning of the pendulum as V to A, 
that is, as BC to the circumference of a circle whose radius is A [cir- 
cumferences of circles are as their radii]. But the time in which the 
pulse will run over the space BC is to the time in which it will run over 
a length equal to that circumference in the same ratio ; and therefore 
in the time of such an oscillation the pulse will run over a length equal 
to that circumference. 

'Cor. i. The velocity of the pulses is equal to that which heavy 
bodies acquire by falling with an equally accelerated motion, and in 
their fall describing half the altitude A. For the pulse will, in the time 
of this fall, supposing it to move with the velocity acquired by that fall, 
run over a space . that will be equal to the whole altitude A ; and 
therefore in the time of one oscillation composed of one going and 
return, will go over a space equal to the circumference of a circle 
described with the radius A : for the time of the fall is to the time of 
oscillation as the radius of a circle to its circumference. 

'Cor. 2. Therefore since that altitude A is as the elastic force of 
die fluid directly, and the density of the same inversely, the velocity of 
&e pulses will be in a ratio compounded of the subduplicate ratio of the 
density inversely, and the subduplicate ratio of the elastic force 
directly.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 13/ 

1 Proposition L. — To find. the distances of the pulses. 

1 Let the number of the vibrations of the body, by Avhose tremor the 
pulses are produced, be found to any given time. By that number 
divide the space which a pulse can go over in the same time, and the 
part found will be the breadth of one pulse. 

' Scholium. The last propositions respect the motions of light and 
sounds. For since light is propagated in right lines, it is certain that it 
rannot consist in action alone (by prop. 41 and 42). As to sounds, 
since they arise from tremulous bodies, they can be nothing else but 
pulses of the air propagated through it (by prop. 43). And this is con- 
firmed by the tremors, which sounds, it they be loud and deep, excite 
in the bodies near them, as we experience in the sound of drums. For 
(juick and short tremors are less easily excited. But it is well known, 
that any sounds, falling upon strings in unison with the sonorous bodies, 
excite tremors in those strings. This is also confirmed from the 
velocity of sounds. For since the specific gravities of rain water and 
quicksilver are to one another as about 1 to 13^, and when the mercury 
in the barometer is at the height of 30 inches of our measure, the spe- 
cific gravities of the air and of rain water are to one another as about 1 
to 870 : therefore the specific gravity of air and quicksilver are to each 
other as 1 to 11,890. Therefore when the height of the quicksilver is 
at 30 inches, a height of uniform air, whose weight would be sufficient 
to compress our air to the density we find it to be of, must be equal to 
356,700 inches or 29,725 feet of our measnre. And this is that very- 
height of the medium, which I have called A in the construction of the 
foregoing proposition, a circle whose radius is 29,725 feet is 186,768 
feet in circumference. And since a pendulum 39J inches in length 
completes one oscillation, composed of its going and return, in two 
seconds of time, as is commonly known ; it follows that a pendulum 
29,725 feet or 356,700 inches in length will perform a like oscillation 



I38 ELLEN OR THE 

in 190J seconds. Therefore in that time a sound will go right onwards 
186,768 feet, and therefore in one second 979 feet. 

' But in this computation we have made no allowance for the crassi- 
tude of the> solid particles of the air, by which the sound is propagated 
instantaneously. Because the weight of air is to the weight of water as 
1 to 870, and because salts are almost twice as dense as water ; if the 
particles of air are supposed to be of near the same density as those of 
water or salt, and the rarity of the air arises from the intervals of the 
particles ; the diameter of one particle of air will be to the interval 
between the centers of the particles, as 1 to about 9 or 10, and to the 
interval between the particles themselves as 1 to 8 or 9. Therefore to 
979 feet, which, according to the above calculation, a sound will 
advance forward in one second of time, we may add ^^p-, or about 109 
feet, to compensate for the crassitude of the particles of the air : and 
then a sound will go forward about 1088 feet in one second of time. 

' Moreover, the vapors floating in the air, being of another spring, 
and a different tone, will hardly, if at all, partake of the motion of the 
true air in which 'the sounds are propagated. Now if these vapors 
remain unmoved, that motion will be propagated the swifter through 
the true air alone, and that in the subduplicate ratio of the defect of 
the matter. So if the atmosphere consist of ten parts of true air and 
one part of vapors, the motion of sounds will be swifter in the sub- 
duplicate ratio of 11 to 10, or very nearly in the entire ratio of 21 to 20, 
than if it were propagated through eleven parts of true air : and there- 
fore the motion of sounds above discovered must be increased in that 
ratio. By this means the sound will pass through 1142 feet in one 
second of time. 

'These things will be found true in spring and autumn, when the air 
is rarefied by the gentle warmth of those seasons, and by that means 
its elastic force becomes somewhat more intense. But in winter, when 
the air is condensed by the cold, and its elastic force is somewhat 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 39 

remitted, the motion of sounds will be slower in a subduplicate ratio of 
the density ; and on the other hand, swifter in the summer. 

' Now by experiments it actually appears that sounds do really 
advance in one second of time about 1142 feet of English measure, or 
1070 feet of French measure. 

' The velocity of sounds being known, the intervals of the pulses are 
known also. For M. Sauveur, by some experiments that he made, 
found that an open pipe about five Paris feet in length, gives a sound 
of the same tone with a viol-string that vibrates a hundred times in one 
second. Therefore there are near 100 pulses in a space of 1070 Paris 
feet, which a sound runs over in a second of time ; and therefore one 
pulse fills up a space of about io T 7 ^ Paris feet, that is, about twice the 
length of the pipe. From whence it is probable, that the breadths of 
the pulses, in all sounds made in open pipes, are equal to twice the 
length of the pipes. 

' Moreover, from the corollary of prop. 47, appears the reason, why 
the sounds immediately cease with the motion of the sonorous body, 
and why they are heard no longer when we are at a great distance from 
the sonorous bodies, than when we are very near them. And besides, 
from the foregoing principles it plainly appears how it comes to pass 
that sounds are so mightily increased in speaking-trumpets. For all 
reciprocal motion uses to be increased by the generating cause at each 
return. And in tubes hindering the dilatation of the sounds, the motion 
decays more slowly, and recurs more forcibly; and therefore is the 
more increased by the new motion impressed at each return. And 
these are the principal phenomena of sounds.' 

"In this scholium, which Ellen has preferred to give in full 
before criticism, it will be noticed that Mr. Newton says that 
sounds, since they arise from tremulous bodies, can be nothing 
else but pulses of the air propagated through it. This is a bold 



140 ELLEN OR THE 

statement, but not true. If it were a self-evident truth it would 
need no confirmation; but perceiving its unreliability Mr. 
Newton adds : ' And this is confirmed by the tremors,' etc, ; 
and further: 'This is also confirmed by the velocity of sound/ 
which is also an error. For Mr. Newton's theoretical velocity 
does not agree with that of experiment, and to make it 
agree he makes another assumption that the sound passes 
through the air particles themselves instantaneously, and also 
that these particles occupy about one-ninth of the space. It is, 
then, with these hypotheses added, that the first statement is 
confirmed by the velocity of sound, but these hypotheses have 
been shown to be untrue and have been entirely abandoned. 

"Chambers' Encyclopaedia says: 

' Newton was the first who attempted to deduce from mechanical 
principles the velocity of sound, but only for the particular case in 
which each particle of air, in the path of the sound, is supposed to 
move backwards and forwards according to the same law as the bob of 
a pendulum. He showed that this species of motion is consistent with 
the elastic properties of air, as given by Boyle's or Mariotte's Law, viz., 
that the pressure of air is proportional to its density. The velocity of 
sound in this case is of course to be found from the time which elapses 
between the commencement of the motion of any one particle of air, 
and that of another at a given distance from it, in the direction in which 
the sound is moving. The numerical result deduced by Newton with 
the then received experimental data for the compressibility of air, was 
979 feet per second. This investigation was very defective, applying, 
in fact, solely to the special case of a pure musical note, continually 
propagated without lateral divergence ; yet the solution obtained by 
Lagrange from a complete analysis of the question, gave precisely the 
same mathematical result. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I4T 

'But, by direct measurements, carefully made, by observing at night 
the interval which elapses between the flash and the report of a cannon 
at a known distance, the velocity of sound has been found to be con- 
siderably greater — in fact, about 1090 feet per second, at the tempera- 
ture of freezing water. 

'Newton seeks for the cause of this discrepancy between theory and 
observation in the idea that the size of the particles of air is finite com- 
pared with their mutual distance ; and that sound is instantaneously 
propagated through the particles themselves. Thus, supposing the 
particles to have a diameter one-ninth of the distance between them, we 
must add one-ninth to the space traveled by sound in a second, i. e., to 
the velocity — which will thus be brought up to (1 + -J-) 979 feet = 1088 
feet nearly, which is a very close approximation to the actual value 
given above. 

'This is not one of Newton's happiest conjectures — for, independent 
of the fact that such an assumption would limit definitely the amount of 
compression which air could undergo, and, besides, is quite inconsistent 
with the truth of Boyle's law for even moderate pressures, it would 
result from it that sound should travel slower in rarefied, and quicker in 
condensed air. Now, experiment shows that the velocity of sound is 
unaffected by the height of the barometer ; and, indeed, it is easy to see 
that this ought to be the case. For in condensed air the pressures are 
increased proportionally to the increase of condensation, and the mass 
of a given bulk of air is increased in the same proportion. Hence, in a 
sound wave in condensed air, the forces and the masses are increased 
proportionally, and thus the rate of motion is unaltered. But the tem- 
perature of the air has an effect on sound, since we know that the 
elastic force is increased by heat, even when the density is not dimin- 
ished ; and therefore the velocity of sound increases with the tempera- 
ture at the rate of about 4^ feet per Fahrenheit degree, as is found 
by experiment. 



142 ELLEN OR THE 

Newton's explanation of the discrepancy between theory and experi- 
ment being thus set aside, various suggestions were made to account for 
it; some, among whom was Euler, imagining that the mathematical 
methods employed, being only approximate, involved a serious error.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 45 



X. 

^F)RO POSITION 47 is the one upon which has mainly 
' rested this theory of sound. Indeed, if Mr. Airy, for 
some time astronomer royal in England, is correct, the theory 
in its present form originated in these propositions of Mr. New- 
ton. Thus Mr. Airy in his book on ' Sound and Atmospheric 
Vibrations,' says: 

'The idea of a wave appears to have been first entertained by New- 
ton, and was certainly first developed by him, for the purpose of 
explaining what till then was totally obscure, the transmission of Sound 
through Air ; it is worked out in the third book of the " Principia." ' 

" It will be seen that proposition 47 is founded upon an 
hypothesis. "If pulses are propagated through a fluid,' etc., 
and this hypothesis is nowhere proven. It is, too, included in 
the hypothesis that the particles go and return in the shortest 
possible motion. And this would appear to be done so as to 
make the chord and arc as nearly equal as possible, the 
demonstration of the proposition depending upon this impos- 
sible equality. 

"Newton on several occasions in his ' Principia' remarks that 
his principles are mathematical, not philosophical. Thus he 
says at the beginning of book 3 : 

' In the preceding books I have laid down the principles of philoso- 
phy ; principles, not philosophical, but mathematical ; such, to wit, as 
we may build our reasonings upon in philosophical inquiries.' 



146 ' ELLEN OR THE • 

44 And after proving in proposition 23, book 2, that 'particles 
flying each other with forces that are reciprocally proportional 
to the distances of their centers, compose an elastic fluid whose 
density is as the compression,' he adds, in the scholium : 

1 But whether elastic fluids do really consist of particles so repelling 
each other, is a physical question. We have here demonstrated math- 
ematically the property of fluids consisting of particles of this kind, that 
hence philosophers may take occasion to discuss that question.' 

"All of this is equally applicable to this proposition. 
Whether pulses are propagated through a fluid whose particles 
go and return with the shortest reciprocal motion, is a physical 
question, which Mr. Newton leaves for others to discuss. 

" But this is the fundamental question in this discussion, and 
any propositions founded upon it as an hypothesis, however 
interesting they may have been to Mr. Newton as an exercise 
in mathematics, are not of practical importance to any one else. 

"In the discussion following he draws a right line PS equal 
to one of these hypothetical shortest oscillations, or rather half 
oscillations, and with this line as a diameter he constructs a 
circle. Such a circle, of course, is of infinitesimal propor- 
tions, and to that extent of the kind Mr. Newton is looking for 
where the arc isn't very much longer than the chord. 

"The proposition contains additional hypotheses, or assump- 
tions, as to the nature of the air and elastic force. He 
assumes that the whole time of one vibration with its propor- 
tional parts be represented by the circumference of this circle 
and its parts, in such a sort that it will follow the law of har- 
monic curves, and states that a point moving according to this 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FINE 1 47 

law will perform its vibration as an oscillating [cycloidal] 
pendulum. 

" In the further elucidation of the problem, it is assumed that 
each particle, when struck, proceeds in a straight line in its 
whole half vibration, and then returns to rest to its original 
position ; but it is exceedingly difficult to see how in this man- 
ner it can operate like a pendulum at all. For a pendulum 
never performs this kind of an antic. Ellen never heard of a 
pendulum cycloidal, or any other kind, that operated in this 
way. They always oscillate about a centre. All well regu- 
lated pendulums certainly do ; nor can Ellen imagine so eccen- 
tric a pendulum as to oscillate from one end of its line to the 
other, return and stop. But the essential feature in this prop- 
osition that each particle should make its complete oscillation 
in the time of a so-called wave length includes such extraor- 
dinary action by each of these particles, which, if possible under 
Mr. Newton's theory of gases, would be impossible by the 
kinetic theory of gases. 

"Mr. Newton demonstrated in proposition 43 that a 
system of waves could not be formed in a fluid medium. 
Now he considers what would be the effect and action 
of such a system supposing that they could be formed. 
This, as Ellen thinks, is an entirely superfluous endeavor. 
Hut as this proposition has been accepted as valuable 
by that class of scientists who look to authority for their 
knowledge, and who have so great a lack of penetration 
as to accept or treat a demonstration founded upon an hypo- 
thesis as if it were the demonstration of the hypothesis, so that 
the proposition has been very generally used to support 



148 ELLEN OR THE 

the undulatory theory, it may be worth while to analyze its, 
character. 

"In the first place Mr. Newton assumes the elastic force of 
air to consist of a repellant force between the particles. This 
is, of course, in direct antagonism to the dynamic hypothesis, 
or the kinetic theory of gases, so called, at the present time 
very generally entertained by scientists, but not at all 
by Mr. Newton. For by the kinetic theory all the particles 
of air are always in motion, although the direction of 
that motion depends entirely upon the nature of the 
last contact which the particle made ; and by the kinetic 
theory, again, the number of particles is practically infinite, and 
they are moving in all directions. This being so, it is impos- 
sible to see how Mr. Newton's proposition can be used at all 
by those who accept the kinetic theory of gases. For 
the proposition is founded upon the idea of quiescent air,, 
and can only work where there is quiescent air ; but as practi- 
cally there is never quiescent air, whatever hypothesis is 
accepted to explain elastic force, the demonstration and the 
theory it is intended to uphold are not worth the paper they 
are written on, although assuming the kinetic theory of gases 
the absurdities of the theory are infinitely increased. 

" By the kinetic theory the average mean speed of the par- 
ticles of air is, according to Ganot, about 1590 feet per second. 
Ganot further says : 

' In a gas the velocities of the particles are unequal : since, even sup- 
posing that they were all originally the same, it is not difficult to see 
that they would soon alter. For imagine a particle to be moving par- 
allel to one side, and to be struck centrically by another moving at right. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 49 

angles to the direction of its motion, the particle struck would proceed 
on its new path with increased velocity, while the striking particle would 
rebound in a different direction with a smaller velocity. 

' Notwithstanding the accidental character of the velocity of any indi- 
vidual particle in such a mass of gas as we have been considering, there 
will, at any one given time, be a certain average distribution of veloci- 
ties. Now, from considerations based on the theory of probabilities, 
Maxwell inferred that some velocities will be more probable than others 
— that there will, indeed, be one velocity which is more probable than 
any other. This is called the most probable velocity. The mean velocity 
of the particle, as deduced above, is not this, nor is it the same as the 
arithmetical mean of all the velocities ; it may be defined to be that 
velocity which, if all the molecules possessed it, would give rise to the 
same mean energy of the molecular impacts against the side as that 
which actually exists. This mean velocity is about J^ greater than the 
arithmetical mean velocity, and is f that of the most probable single 
velocity. 

' Theoretical as well as experimental observations render it possible 
to determine with great probability the length of the path which one 
molecule of a gas traverses before it encounters another, which is known 
as the free path. This is not a constant number in one and the same 
gas ; that is, the paths which the molecules travel between two impacts 
are not equal, and the average of these is known as the mean free path. 
The length of this depends on the number of molecules in unit volume 
of a gas, being inversely as the density ; for it is obvious that as the 
density increases the number of molecules increases also, and therewith 
the path which one molecule travels before it meets another will be so 
much the smaller. The mean free path in different gases will be 
shorter the larger are the molecules. In nitrogen measured under 
standard conditions it has been determined to be 98.6/A/x (micromilli- 
metres), in hydrogen 185.5, an d in carbonic acid 68/x/x. The frequency 



15° ELLEN OR THE 

of the impacts has also been determined; in the case of hydrogen this 
is 9,480 millions, and of nitrogen and air 8,000 millions per second.' 

" It is further assumed in this theory that the molecules 
themselves fill only about a four-thousandth part of the whole 
space containing them. 

"Mr. O. E. Meyer in 'The Kinetic Theory of Gases, pub- 
lished by him, and one of the most complete and popular works 
upon this subject, says : 

'When we develop the theory of sound according to the kinetic 
hypothesis we have also to consider two sorts of motion which exist 
without disturbing each other. In addition to the molecular motion 
which is present even in a gas at rest there are the to-and-fro motions 
which constitute the vibrations of sound. The latter motions spread 
from one place to another, and the cause of this transmission is the 
molecular motions which bring the particles that execute the sound- 
vibrations into contact with others. From this it follows that the 
velocity of propagation of sound cannot depend on the nature of the 
sound vibrations, but only on the molecular motions. 

1 If we paid no regard to the variations in temperature which a gas 
undergoes by condensation or rarefaction, it would be easy to answer 
the question as to the speed with which, ou the basis of the assumptions 
of the kinetic theory, a sound wave is propagated. If sound consists in 
alternate rarefactions and condensations of the air, the speed of its 
propagation cannot be different from the speed with which any 
inequality of the pressure that arises at any place would spread through 
air-filled space. Now, according to our theory the pressure arises 
from the to-and-fro motions of the particles, and is exerted and carried 
on from one layer to another by the same cause ; the velocity with 
which a pressure or sound wave is propagated must therefore be just as 
great as that with which the particles of gas move to and fro in the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 151 

direction of propagation of the wave. The value of the component of 
the molecular motion in the given direction, and not the resultant 
velocity of the particles, comes therefore into account in the calculation 
of the velocity of sound ; and hence it follows at once that the speed of 
propagation of sound in a gas must be smaller titan the mean speed of 
the molecular motion in this gas? 

"And Mr. S. F. Preston, in the 'Philosophical Magazine/ 
referring to the propagation of sound in accordance with this 
theoiy, says : 

' Since, therefore, the portion of a molecule's path through which it 
is acted on by other molecules of the gas is vanishingly small compared 
with the range of its path throughout which it is not so acted on, there 
is therefore practically no distance action between the molecules of a 
gas, which accordingly can only influence each other by direct impact. 
The only way, therefore, one molecule of a gas can influence another 
is by moving up to it and striking against it. The only way, therefore, 
a wave or small impulse can be propagated from molecule to molecule 
through a gas is by the molecule possessing the impulse moving up to 
and striking against another molecule ; and therefore the velocity of 
propagation of such wave or impulse must depend solely and entirely 
upon the velocity with which the molecule moves ; or the sole conceiv- 
able cause regulating the velocity of an impulse propagated from mole- 
cule to molecule is the velocity of the molecule itself, or the velocity 

with which the molecule traverses its free path. 

* -*- * * * * * * 

1 The result of these considerations may therefore be summarized as 
follows : 

' That the velocity of propagation of a wave (such as a wave of 
sound) in a gas is solely determined by, and proportional to, the velocity 
of the molecules of the gas; that this velocity of propagation of the wave 



I5 2 ELLEN OR THE 

is not affected by density, presstire, or by the specific gravity of a gas, or 
by anything else excepting the velocity of its molecules. 

1 This, it may be observed, is a condition following inevitably on the 
acceptance of the kinetic theory ; and surely the very simplicity of this 
relation as affording a definite physical conception of the condition 
determining the velocity of sound, and as giving an insight into its 
mode of propagation, would be by itself sufficient to recommend it over 
the old system. If any thing I have written should serve to divert the 
attention of others more competent than myself to this interesting sub- 
ject, the purpose of this paper will have been served.' 

" From which it results that in accordance with these 
theories every particle of air (or any gas) is supposed to be 
always moving at the same time : 

"First, at the rate of about 1590 feet per second, in con- 
stantly varying directions, from which results elastic force; 
second, with ever varying movement to form heat ; and third, 
in an indefinite number of different directions at the rate of 
about 1 190 feet per second in each, in its efforts to distribute 
sound. 

" It will be seen, accepting this theory, what a fatal delusion 
Mr. Newton's conception was in proposition 47, corollary, that 
the lineola would come to rest and move no more. For there 
is no rest for these particles under these theories any more 
than for the wicked. And if the particles move, the lineolae 
must move. 

"In the 'London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Mag- 
azine,' vol. 16, this proposition of Newton is discussed by J. J. 
Waterston, who first raises the question whether it or similar 
propositions founded upon the expansion theory of elastic 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 153 

Force, can be accepted by those who believe in the kinetic 
theory of gases. He then says : 

' In prop. 47 of book 2 Newton shows that "if pulses are propagated 
through a fluid, the several particles of the fluid going and returning 
with the shortest reciprocal motion are always accelerated or retarded 
according to the law of the oscillating pendulum." It is assumed that 
the elastic force is proportional to the density ; and in the direction of 
the pulse the fluid is supposed to be divided into physical lineolae, 
which are expansible and contractile, and exhibit a force that resists 
compression inversely as their "breadth. The mathematical reasoning 
defines the law by which the breadth of these lineolae, and conse- 
quently the law of the accelerative force operating on each corpuscle 
acts, which is thus found to be the same as a body moving in a cycloid 
is subject to under the influence of gravity. 

' Newton's fundamental hypothesis is, that the particles of air in the 
direction of the pulse are successively agitated with like motions ; that 
both the dynamic condition and the static force of repulsion, which is 
determined by the length of the line that separates two adjacent par- 
ticles (called a lineola), is transferred onwards in the direction of the 
pulse from one particle to the next adjacent in regular succession. 

' The demonstration takes account of three orders of magnitudes : 
1, the breadth of a pulse (L) ; 2, the breadth of an oscillation of a 
particle (2/) ; 3, the length of a lineola (A), each considered as 
infinitesimal with respect to the preceding. 

1 If the motion of a particle forward and backward in the line 2/ cor- 
responds to that of a cycloidal pendulum, i. e., if the relation between 
the accelerative force (acting in the line of motion), the acquired 
velocity, and the time is the same in the line 2/ as in the complete 
cycloid, the force in this line must vary simply as the distance (y) from 
its middle point. The value thus assigned to the force implies that 8, 



154 ELLEN OR THE 

the difference between the lengths of two adjacent lineolae, should vary 
also in this proportion. If a semi-circle [circle] is described on the 
diameter 2/, y is the cosine of an arc, of which x being the sine, we have 
S varies as y as dx ; so that the differential of the lineola ought to be 
equal to the differential of the sine, and hence the absolute magnitude 
of the deviation of the length of a lineola from its mean length ought 
to be proportional to the sine. 

' Thus if the motion of a particle is oscillatory, like a complete 
cycloidal pendulum, the required sequence of force demands the above 
specific sequence of change in the distance of the particles. Again, if 
the motion of each particle is oscillatory, the required sequence in its 
velocity (viz., that it should vary as x the sine) demands also a specific 
sequence of change in the distance of the particles ; and this sequence 
is precisely the same as what is required by the sequence of force. 

'To obtain a clear idea of this (which is a problem of pure mathe- 
matics), we may suppose with the same radius / another semi-circle to 
be described, placed also in the line of the pulse, and removed to the 
distance a from the preceding semi-circle. Let a third also be drawn, 
removed the same distance A from the second. We have further to 
suppose these semi-circles divided into as many parts (aa x , a x a 2 , a 2 
a 3 , etc. ; bb x , b 1 b 2 , b 2 b 3 , etc. : cc 1; c 1 c 2 , c 2 c 3 , etc.), beginning at 

where the line of pulse intersects them as a enters into L (or — - 

A 

number of parts). The length of each of these parts or steps is thus 

2/tt=s (being infinitesimal with regard to a). 

' Having made this construction, we have next to consider that the 
motion of each particle to be oscillatory must be such that, at the 
instant when particle A has traversed the versed sine of aan, the par- 
ticle B (next in advance of A) being one step behind in its motion, has 
traversed only the versed sine of bb n -i. and particle C the versed sine 
of ccn-2- If B had traversed as many steps as A, the distance a that 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 55 

separates them would not alter ; but since it is a step behind, AB 
is at this point less than A by the difference between vers aa n ' 
and vers bb n -i, or vers aa n — vers aa n -i 3 which equals s. sin aa n -J 
[because of similar triangles and the assumed equality of an arc and 
its chord, and the principle that the base divided by the hypothenuse 
is equal to the sine of the angle opposite the base]. In the same 
way, C being a step behind B, their distance is less than A by s. sin 

aan-i-i. Thus we have BC — BA=s(sin aa n — sin aa n -i)=s cos aa n -^- 

(Here s, being an absolute magnitude, has to be divided by the abso- 
lute radius /to represent the differential of arc.) At the beginning of 
the vibration n = i, and cos aa u = radius; hence with B at the initial 
point b, C at c-i (a step back on the returning half of the previous 
oscillation), and A at ai (the points on the circle being supposed 
projected on the diameter), the difference 

BC-BA=^= 4 /(^) 2 . 

' This initial amount determines the accelerative force acting at the 
beginning of the motion of each particle, which is obtained by com- 
paring it with the reciprocal of A, which represents the whole static force 
of repulsion between two particles at the distance A [because elastic 
force varies inversely as the distance between adjacent particles]. 

IT 

This force having to support the weight of - - particles (H being 

A 

T "FT 

the height of a uniform atmosphere), - represents the force - g, viz., 

A A 

a force that in one second is capable of communicating a velocity of 

- - g feet per second. 
A 

'To obtain the value of the initial force acting on particle B when it 

is at b, we have the following proportion : 

I I I .rl S - fl Tr 7/7T NO ) 

A : T--!* :: X 8 : A" X 8 = Hg4/( r )-. 



156 ELLEN OR THE 

''But I cannot see," I said, "how this proportion is 
obtained." 

"It cannot be obtained," she replied, "from quiescent air, 
and this Mr. Waterston refers to further on. But assuming - 
that an agitation of the air has happened, — an agitation in its 
nature miraculous because without cause, — -then, as Mr. Waters= 

ton states, -r- represents the elastic force ~, and ~j- the dif- 
ference between the lineola in front of a particle and the one 
behind it. The- force behind the particle would then be 

1 

and that in front of it -y- and the effective force would be the 

difference between these. This is the second term in Mr. 
Waterston's proportion, though as he subtracts the larger from 
the smaller, the term is negative. The fourth term may then 
be obtained by solving the proportion and dropping s 2 consid- 
ered an infinitesimal. This term would also be negative. 

"The initial force can also be obtained by letting a, b, 
and c represent three consecutive particles of air; be and 

ab the lineolae which separate them. Calling the differ- 

s 2 . • 

ence between these lineolae -j and supposing b c to be as 

s 2 
much greater than A. as b a is less, we have bc=X-\ — - and ba 

s 2 
== X j. Let F x equal the force pushing b towards a and 

F 2 the force pushing b towards c ; then by Boyle's law 

F .Hg.. 



I 


1 , ,-, Hg 1 

A ~i7 


I 


s 2 * 


T 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 59 

Subtracting- the ratios of the first proportion from the corre- 
sponding ratios of the second, we have 

Hg i i.i 



F ' 2 * *"a-4 a+ s V a 

2/ 2/ 



and solvin 



s 2 



" X--<£>. * 



rtion 



If we drop (—y) 2 considered as an infinitesimal, the proporti 

s 2 Hg 
becomes F-> — F,= ^X- r, which is the same as that obtained 

A/ A 

by Mr. Waters ton. 

"Mr. Waterston continues: 

' The time (r) taken by a particle to traverse 2/, with this force 
diminishing as the distance from the center of the semi-circle, is the 
same as the time required for one oscillation of a pendulum whose 
length is /, if subject to an influence of gravity equal to this force, 
and is the same as the time taken by the pulse to travel through -JL. 
By the law of the pendulum, r is equal to rr multiplied by the square 
root of the quotient of length of pendulum by force of gravity, hence 



-"V^-H L i/~ iL Vt5 ; 



Hg 4 / " \Hg 

and the velocity of the pulse per second is \'Hg. 

t This supposes Mariotte's law maintained. The repulsive action is 
necessarily assumed to be limited to adjacent particles, not extending 
through the interstices of these to the particles beyond (for such is the 
extraordinary and imprebable hypothesis required to deduce Mariotte's 
law from a static repulsive 'force). This may be supposed subject to 
modification during vibratory action. 



160 ELLEN OR THE 

'But the hypothesis upon which the mathematical demonstration 
rests is open to three grounds of objection: i. It does not take 
account of the condition of the front of a pulse when the particles from 
a condition of rest enter into the cycle of motion defined by the theory. 
2. The force of repulsion between two adjacent particles required by 
the theory is extravagantly large. 3. The other physical properties of 
gases are not deducible from the hypothesis. 

'To these may be added, that the dynamical theory of heat has sug- 
gested another hypothesis which is free from these objections, and 
which therefore claims a preference according to Newton's first €t rule 
of reasoning in philosophy," viz., "We are to admit no more causes of 
natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their 
appearances. To this purpose the philosophers say that Nature does 
nothing in vain, and more is in vain when less will serve ; for Nature is 
pleased with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of superfluous 
causes." 

' 1. The theory does not take account of the condition of the front 
of the pulse, or rather of the front of the first of the series of pulses of 
which a sound consists. This is apparent if we consider that a particle 
is represented by the theory as at rest at each extremity of its oscilla- 
tion, and at those points the accelerative force is at its maximum, and is 
derived from the difference between the lengths of the lineolae that issue 
from the particle in front and in rear. The front lineola cannot differ 
from the mean length so long as the front particle is at rest unaffected by 
the advancing pulse. The rear lineola is less than the mean length by a 
certain small amount a. If the front particle were in action in a pulse 
cycle, the length of the front lineola would be increased by the same 
amount a so that the accelerative force at each extremity of the oscil- 
lation of a particle is represented by 2a ; and unless it were so, the 
condition required to sustain the beautiful relation of velocity and pro- 
pelling force would be wanting. But at the front of the first pulse the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE i6l 

Mneola does not differ from the mean length, so that the accelerative 
force is represented by a, and this is only one-half the amount required 
by the theory to begin the oscillation. In truth, the demonstration 
only applies to a pulse having similar pulses operating on both sides. 

1 2. The force of repulsion between two adjacent particles required by 
the theory is extravagantly large. The recent advances in the theory 
of heat have, in a measure, compelled us to realize the dynamic value 
of natural forces. To compute the absolute value of the repulsive force 
acting between two adjacent molecules of air. we have to consider that 
it has to support the gravity of the number of molecules in the height 

IT 

of a uniform atmosphere (— ) ; it must therefore exceed the force of 

gravity of one molecule in this ratio. Now the force of gravity in one 
second can communicate a velocity of 32 feet per second, so that the 
force of repulsion between two adjacent molecules of air must be 

TT 

capable in one second of communicating a velocity of 32 — feet. The 

A 

absolute value of A, the distance between two adjacent molecules of air, 
we can now with great probability deduce from the phenomena of 
capillarity (Phil. Mag., vol. xv., p. 1). At the boiling point of water 
the number of molecules of steam in a cubic inch is the same as the 
number of molecules of air in the same volume. At 86° the number of 
layers of aqueous molecules in a cubic inch is 215 millions (Phil. Mag., 
vol. xv., p. 11). Hence at ordinary temperatures the distance between 
two adjacent molecules of air must be about -^ of a millionth of an 

IT 

inch, and the value of (32—), the velocity communicable in a second, 

is 160 thousand times the velocity of light. Can we for a moment 
believe that such a force has any real existence, that it is other than a 
mathematical fiction ? 

'3. The other physical properties are not deducible from the hypoth- 
esis of a static force of repulsion. The deductive power of Newton's 
theory is confessedly limited to Mariotte's law and the velocity of 



162 ELLEN OR THE 

sound. Laplace, by the invention of calorific atmospheres, is allowed 
to have added to these Dal ton and Gay-Lussac's theory of expansion ; 
but it is a question whether the reciprocal action between heat atmos- 
pheres and molecules, which he expresses by mathematical symbols, 
can be realized by the mind. In judging of this, we must not forget 
the chapter of the Mecanique Celeste, in which the author speculates 
upon what the laws of motion would have been if force had been as a 
function of the velocity, instead of as the simple velocity. What is to 
be expected from a superstructure resting upon such a foundation as 
this reveals? Nevertheless, granting that Mariotte's law, Dal ton and 
Gay-Lussac's law, and the velocity of sound are represented by the 
statical hypothesis, we have still Dalton and Graham's law of diffusion 
and diffusive velocity; Gay-Lussac's law of volumes; Dulong and 
Petit's law of specific heat, extended to the more simple gaseous bodies 
by Haycraft and the French physicists ; the law of latent heat par- 
tially discovered by Gay-Lussac and Welter's experiments ; also the 
diminution of temperature in ascending the atmosphere, — all as yet 
undeduced from any statical theory of elastic fluids. It may be that 
additions to the mathematical hypotheses of Laplace will be attempted 
with the view of extending their capacity, as indeed there seems to be 
no limit to this artificial and barren system of procedure, which is as 
far removed from the simplicity of nature as the hideous epicycles of 
Ptolemy.' 

"Mr. J. F. Herschel, in his article on Sound in the 'Encyclo- 
paedia Metropolitana,' as the result of a long mathematical 
investigation, says : 

' Hence it follows that the velocity of sound is uniform ; is inde- 
pendent of the nature, extent, a?id intensity of the primitive disturbance 
(for the arbitra?y functions do not enter it) and is expressed by the 
quantity we have called a, that is y/2gH.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 163 

" It will be seen that the mathematics sustain the theory, as 
is generally the case. He would be a poor mathematician 
that could not accomplish this. But Mr. Earnshaw, another 
noted mathematician, has shown by mathematics equally sub- 
stantial and interesting, that the velocity of sound is not uni- 
form, but varies with the nature, extent, and intensity of the 
primitive disturbance. 

"At one point of his demonstration Mr. Herschel takes occa- 
sion to criticise Mr. Newton, as follows: 

' And first it is evident that since the variable quantity x enters into all 
the terms both of rand e under the functional characteristics, these quan- 
tities regarded as functions of /, are modified essentially by the values of 
x, which may be regarded as a parameter, or constant element in the com- 
position of the functions expressing the nature of the motion of any 
assigned molecule. If only x-\-at, or only x — at, separately entered 

under the characteristics, since x-{-at=a (/-f- — ) and ^ — at= — a 

(t — ) the variation of x would only vary the origin of t; and the 

motions of all the successive molecules would be performed according 
to the same laws, only commencing at a different epoch for each 
molecule ; but as both these quantities are involved, that will not be 
universally the case. Consequently, in general, it appears that the 
undulation, or pulse, as it is propagated onward, becomes modified 
essentially in its quality by the distance it has passed over, it is no 
longer the same sound, i. e., not identical with what would be produced 
by shifting the initial motion forward. Its velocity, intensity, and pitch, 
it is true, will remain (as we shall see) unaltered ; but its quality, 
its mode of action on the ear (which must be differently affected by 
changes in the nature of the impulse made in it), will undergo a change. 



1 64 ELLEN OR THE 

This e?tabh'shes an essential difference between a sound wave and such 
a wave as we took for an illustration, where every point was in succes- 
sion agitated by the same identical motion. 

' Consequently every theory of sound in which it is assumed that the 
several particles in a sounding column are all in succession agitated 
alike, is defective. This is the case with Newton's doctrine of the prop- 
agation of sound as delivered in the 47th Proposition of the Second 
Book of the ' Principia,' and were there no other objection against it, 
would suffice to vitiate the whole. This and other unsatisfactory points 
in the celebrated theory alluded to, were first distinctly perceived and 
pointed out by Lagrange, in the first volume of the "Turin Miscellanies," 
and an exact and vigorous investigation substituted in its place, in 
which the sounding column is regarded as consisting of a series of 
finite, insulated particles, mutually repelling each other ; a mode of 
conception which leads, by a very complicated analysis, to the same 
results as that above stated, but which has the advantage of setting in a 
distinct light the internal mechanism, if we can so term it, by which 
sound is propagated. 

' Moreover, since by differentiating the equation (d) we get 

gj-=a» [F"(x+at)+f"(x-at)] 

this will be proportional to the accelerating force acting on the mole- 
cule. It is therefore by no means universally proportional to y— x, the 
distance of the molecule from its point of rest; and therefore another 
assumption on which the Newtonian doctrine of sound rests, viz., that 
the motion of each molecule successively follows the law of a vibrating 
pendulum, is equally destitute of foundation. In fact, Cramer had 
shown, before the examination of Lagrange, that any other law of 
molecular motion might be substituted in Newton's enunciation of the 
general proposition, and the demonstration would be equally conclusive, 
and the resulting velocity of sound the same.' 



WHISPERINGS OF. AN OLD PINE 1 65 

"Laeranee and Herschel were both eminent mathematicians, 
among the most eminent of their time, and Lagrange perhaps 
of any time, but the hypothesis of Lagrange referred to would 
be wholly impossible under the kinetic theory of gases. 

"It is also noticeable that, however M. Lagrange may have 
pointed out the errors of Mr. Newton's theory, errors which, 
as we have seen, are very transparent, scientists generally, — 
the great body of instructors on these subjects, whether in col- 
leges, schools, or books, — did not think wise, whatever might 
be the facts, to make any change of base, but preferred to con- 
tinue to build upon Mr. Newton's propositions. In this, their 
object being simply to have something to teach, they were 
probably wise. For a little more light, like that Lagrange 
threw upon the subject, was sure to break up the meeting, 
in showing how utterly without foundation was the whole 
conception of this theory. 

"It appears, then, that Newton first formulated in its present 
shape this undulatory theory of sound, and probably it owes its 
vigorous life in a great part to this fact; although those who 
accept his demonstration of it, refuse to accept his theory of 
light, in the examination of which he was much more thorough, 
and spent far more time. 

"The moral is the danger of building upon hypotheses. To 
this cause is principally if not wholly due the fact that a very 
large part of the science of the present day is entirely fictitious, 
and much of it ridiculously so." 

"But how could this be avoided?" I asked. 

"By avoiding it," she said. "Build only upon known facts. 
Draw the line between what you know and what you do not 



1 66 ELLEN OR THE 

know, and build only upon what you know ; never upon what 
you do not know." 

"But, Ellen, it is a common saying of scientists that they 
could never advance in knowledge, if they didn't employ 
hypotheses." 

"But they never do advance," she said. "They are hope- 
lessly in the mire, and always have been, and always will be, if 
they depend upon guesses. For always they forget that the 
matter is imaginary and teach it as truth, thus inaugurating 
over the world that great mass of rubbish which is called 
science, but which is always in time discarded, after having ful- 
filled its mission of deceiving one or more generations. Truth 
never will be reached this w r ay, but only by building upon 
known facts, no matter how slowly these may accumulate." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FINE l6Q 



XL 



J3UT what, Ellen, then," I asked, "does this undulatory 

*-** theory of sound rest upon, since Mr. Newton's demon- 
stration has proved to be erroneous both in principle and 
in fact?" 

"Nothing," she said, "but assertion. Indeed, so far as Ellen 
knows, all that its strongest supporters and teachers claim for 
it is that it explains the different phenomena connected with 
sound better than any other hypothesis. A very senseless 
claim, because it does not explain them, and cannot explain 
them at all." 

"And how does Ellen think that they should be explained?" 

"Through knowledge, and not by ignorance," she answered. 
"Largely by the use of our good sense, and not by its surren- 
der. But scientists often, if not generally, would appear to 
make the abandonment of common sense an essential prelimi- 
nary qualification to the study of science. Ellen thinks that 
the use of good sense and the cultivation of it is of far more 
importance than all things else in the search after knowledge." 

"But mathematics are very important in the discoveries of 
physics, are they not, Ellen?" I asked. 

"They are worse than useless," she replied, "without the 
sense to apply them ; and indeed, generally they are worse 
than useless. Every dead hypothesis of past centuries has 



I/O ELLEN OR THE 

been weighted down with them, and the same treatment fol- 
lows the hypotheses of the present, which in time, with all the 
accumulated rubbish, will be consigned to the general cem- 
etery where such matter always finally rests. There are 
certain fields for mathematics, but the field of good sense and 
reason is everywhere. 

"Ellen will now review this undulatory theory of sound, 
quoting from different authorities among its more renowned 
supporters. And first from Professor Tyndall, whose book 'On 
Sound ' has had a very wide circulation. Mr. Tyndall says : 

' Applying a flame to a small collodion balloon which contains a mix- 
ture of oxygen and hydrogen, the gases explode, and every ear in this 
room is conscious of a shock, which we name a sound. How was this 
shock transmitted from the balloon to our organs of hearing ? Have 
the exploding gases shot the air particles against the auditory nerve as 
a gun shoots a ball against a target? No doubt, in the neighborhood 
of the balloon, there is to some extent a propulsion of particles ; but 
no particle of air from the vicinity of the balloon reached the ear of 
any person here present. The process was this : When the flame 
touched the mixed gases they combined chemically, and their union 
was accompanied by the development of intense heat. The heated air 
expanded suddenly, forcing the surrounding air violently away on all 
sides. This motion of the air close to the balloon was rapidly imparted 
to that a little farther off, the air first set in motion coming at the 
same time to rest. The air, at a little distance, passed its motion on 
to the air at a greater distance, and came also in its turn to rest. 
Thus each shell of air, if I may use the term, surrounding the balloon 
took up the motion of the shell next preceding, and transmitted it to 
the next succeeding shell, the motion being thus propagated as a pulse 
or wave through the air.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I /I 

" Supposing Mr. Tyndall's explanation of the explosion of 
the balloon correct, that ' the heated air expanded suddenly, 
forcing the surrounding air violently away on all sides,' why 
should this cause sound? So will a fan force the air away 
violently from all sides, without making perceptible sound. 
This is especially true of electric fans. And this demon- 
strates that such movement of the air is not the cause of 
sound. The supposition that the exploding gases shot air par- 
ticles against the auditory nerve, is entirely superfluous. Ellen 
wishes Mr. Tyndall had explained what he meant by the ait- 
passing its motion on, then coming to rest. In what does he 
consider motion to consist? Perhaps some scientist will 
answer. 

"When gases explode, they unite chemically and occupy 
more space than when separate, probably because of heat 
produced, as Mr. Tyndall explains. The air, by this expan- 
sion, is driven away in all directions, and the distance it is 
driven will depend upon the force of the explosion. It might, 
or it might not, extend throughout a room. It might push out 
all the windows, or be strong enough to push down the walls 
of a building. But all of these operations, though they might 
cause sound, are not sound. Oxygen, uniting with hydrogen, 
as in this experiment, produces steam, which is almost instantly 
condensed to water. This condensation causes a vacuum, and 
this vacuum will be immediately filled by the air pushed in 
by gravity and elastic force. The sound caused by explosions 
is probably produced by the air thus rushing together. In 
what it consists, or how it moves, is not known. Mr. Tyndall 
continues : 



1,72 ELLEN OR THE 

' In the case of our exploding balloon the wave of sound expands on 
all sides, the motion produced by the explosion being thus diffused over 
a continually augmenting mass of air. It is perfectly manifest that this 
cannot occur without an enfeeblement of the motion. Take the case of 
a thin shell of air with a radius of one foot, reckoned from the centre of 
explosion. A shell of air of the same thickness, but of two feet radius, 
will contain four times the quantity of matter ; if its radius be three feet, 
it will contain nine times the quantity of matter ; if four feet, it will 
contain sixteen times the quantity of matter, and so on. Thus the 
quantity of matter set in motion augments as the square of the distance 
from the centre of explosion. The intensity or loudness of sound 
diminishes in the same proportion. We express this law by saying that 
the intensity of the sound varies inversely as the square of the distance? 

"That the area of concentric surfaces increases as the square 
of the distance from the center is true; and therefore sound or 
anything else distributing itself evenly over such surfaces must 
decrease on each unit of surface in this same ratio. So, too, 
anything so distributed having permanence of form, might be 
regathered. And thus sound can be, as is fully illustrated 
by the megaphone, but Ellen denies that any system of waves 
could be. The thing is impossible. Any material thing could 
be, like water, of which waves are composed ; but waves could 
not be. For a wave, like a shadow, is a condition of matter 
without permanence of form. And this alone is proof that the 
undulatory theory of sound is not true. 

"Again Mr, Tyndall says: 

'The motion of the pulse must not be confounded with the motion 
of the particles which at any moment constitute the pulse. For while 
the wave moves forward through considerable distances, each particular 
particle of air makes only a small excursion to and fro.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 73 

" Mr. Tyndall is now discussing his imaginary wave or pulse. 
Ellen denies that there is any wave, or that in such operation 
each particular particle of air makes a small excursion to and 
fro, and states that many particles make a hurried and, for 
them, extensive excursion, pushed by the expanding gas, and 
then tumble back into the vacuum left by the condensed gas. 
What right has Mr. Tyndall, or any scientist, to make such state- 
ments, when he cannot prove them? Upon their face, they 
are untrue. Nor can there be any evidence advanced to prove 
them. At the best their existence is an hypothesis, though 
asserted here to be a fact. It was Goethe who said that the wise 
man is he who is able to distinguish between the things 
which he knows and those which he does not Is there no 
scientist who thus distinguishes? 

"Mr. Tyndall further says: 

' The process may be rudely represented by the propagation of motion 
through a row of glass balls, such as are employed in the game of 
so/itaire. Placing the balls along a groove, each of them touching its 
neighbor, and urging one of them against the end of the row : the 
motion thus imparted to the first ball is delivered up to the second, 
the motion of the second is delivered up to the third, the motion of 
the third is imparted to the fourth ; each ball, after having given up 
its motion, returning itself to rest. The last ball only of the row flies 
away. In a similar way is sound conveyed from particle to particle 
through the air. The particles which fill the cavity of the ear are 
finally driven against the tympanic membrane, which is stretched across 
the passage leading from the external air toward the brain. This 
membrane, which closes outwardly the "drum" of the ear, is thrown 
into vibration, its motion is transmitted to the ends of the auditory 



1/4 ELLEN OR THE 

nerve, and afterward along that nerve to the brain, where the vibra- 
tions are translated into sound. How it is that the motion of the 
nervous matter can thus excite the consciousness of sound is a mystery 
the human mind cannot fathom.' 

" Again we are told that motion is being delivered up, each 
ball returning itself to rest, but the truth apparently is that 
motion is being manufactured and destroyed with no return of 
any ball. Mr. Tyndall's statement that in a similar way sound 
is conveyed, etc., is an entirely gratuitous assertion, as are 
also the other assertions made in this paragraph, except the 
last in which he admits complete ignorance. The process of 
the balls is this : If they touch they neither perceptibly move 
nor return. If they do not touch, each ball moves at the same 
pace as the ball which struck it, — the balls being of the same 
size, as shown in the illustration, — and the striking ball stops. 
Nor is there here any returning to rest. That is, the oscillatory 
motion that is supposed to be illustrated by these balls is not 
illustrated, but instead, a plain, straightforward motion. And 
therefore, if a sound is conveyed in a similar way through the 
air, it is not conveyed by an oscillatory motion. Ellen denies 
that there are any particles filling the cavity of the ear, which 
are being driven against the tympanic membrane; and she 
denies that this membrane is thrown into vibration, or that its 
motion is transmitted to the ends of the auditory nerve, etc. 

" Mr. Tyndall continues : 

' Let us look at the matter in another light. The mechanical effect 
of a ball striking a target depends on two things — the weight of the 
ball, and the velocity with which it moves. The effect is proportional 
to- the weight simply; but it is proportional to the square of the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 75 

velocity. Now what is true of the cannon ball striking a target is also 
true of an air particle striking the tympanum of the ear. Fix your 
attention upon a particle of air as the sound wave passes over it ; it is 
urged from its position of rest toward a neighbor particle, first with an 
accelerated motion, and then with a retarded one. The force which 
first urges it is opposed by the resistance of the air, which finally stops 
the particle and causes it to recoil. At a certain point of its excursion 
the velocity of the particle is its maximum. The intensity of sound is 
pj-oportional to the square of this maximum velocity. 

1 The distance through which the air particles move to and fro, when 
the sound wave passes it, is called the amplitude of the vibration. The 
intensity of the sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude.' 

" It might be a little difficult for any one but a scientist to fix 
his attention upon an air particle when the sound wave passes 
over it. For, according to the theory, this air particle, which 
the sound wave is supposed to be passing over, is a component 
part of that wave ; and therefore to pass over it the wave must 
pass over itself, something that is impossible, although, to be 
sure, it is in perfect accord with every part of this preposterous 
theory. Evidently Mr. Tyndall supposes that it would be a very r 
simple matter for a man to crawl or pass over himself. And he 
seems to be unable to make this distinction, that a state of 
motion, in whatever that consists, might pass through or over a 
particle, but that a wave, of which this particle was an integral 
and necessary part, could not do this. We have here further 
statements as to the action of this supposed particle, every one 
of them purely imaginary. Ellen will discuss later the whole 
conception of oscillatory motion, by which the speed of sound 
is supposed to be accomplished. 



1/6 ■ ELLEN OR THE 

"Mr. Tyndall continues: 

'With regard to the point now under consideration, we must endeavor 
to form a definite image of a wave of sound. We ought to see mentally 
the air particles when urged outward by the explosion of our balloon 
crowding closely together ; but immediately behind this condensation 
we ought to see the particles separated more widely apart. We must, 
in short, be able to seize the conception that a sonorous wave consists 
of two portions, in the one of which the air is more dense, and in the 
other of which it is less dense than usual. A condensation and a rare- 
faction, then, are the two constituents of a wave of sound.' 

"In this case a certain disturbance caused by explosion is 
supposed to have taken place in the air. This disturbance, 
which, in respect to its being a movement of air particles, is 
precisely similar to one made by the movement of a fan, or any 
other body in air, Mr, Tyndall christens a sonorous wave. 
What he means by a sonorous wave doesn't appear, or why he 
calls it a sonorous wave, or, indeed, why he calls it a wave at all. 
If it is a sonorous wave, then all movements of air particles 
are sonorous waves. For it would be impossible for air par- 
ticles to be pushed without making the air more dense in 
the direction towards which they moved, and less dense 
behind them. The condition of things referred to amounts 
to a promiscuous mingling of air particles caused by an 
expansion of gas, followed by the condensing of the gas 
and the reoccupancy of its space by the air, pushed in 
by the combined effects of elastic force and gravity. The 
conception of a sonorous wave, which Mr. Tyndall says we 
must be able to seize, is grotesquely impossible under the 
conditions. It is but the conceit of some one, who not only 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE I//. 

knows nothing of the matter he is talking about, but, so far 
as he has explained, shows that he is ignorant of the condi- 
tions which exist. For Mr. Tyndall does not suggest, and, so 
far as Ellen knows, no text book has suggested, the opera- 
tion of gravity, one of the principal forces involved, and 
through which the atmosphere near the earth is always 
exerting a pressure of about fifteen pounds to the square 
inch, a force that under any conceivable conditions would 
destroy the whole system of sound waves before a scientist 
could count one. It is here that the infinite nonsense 
of condensations and rarefactions, as connected with a system 
of air waves, is first introduced. The old Pine will see that it 
would be impossible for any one using reason to conceive that 
a system of air waves could exist under such circumstances. 

"Mr. Tyndall now speaks of experiments in a vacuum, in 
hydrogen, and on mountains, showing that a bell rung in a 
vacuum makes either no sound or an inaudible one. He says : 

' Sir John Leslie found hydrogen singularly incompetent to act as the 
vehicle of the sound of a bell rung in the gas. More than this, he 
emptied a receiver like that before you of half its air, and plainly heard 
the ringing of the bell. On permitting hydrogen to enter the half- 
filled receiver until it was wholly filled, the sound sank until it was 
scarcely audible. This result remained an enigma until it received a 
simple and satisfactory explanation at the hands of Prof. Stokes. 
When a common pendulum oscillates it tends to form a condensation 
in front and a rarefaction behind. But it. is only a tendency; the 
motion is so slow, and the air is so elastic, that it moves away in front 
before it is sensibly condensed, and fills the space behind before it can 
become sensibly dilated. Hence waves or pulses are not generated by 



178 ELLEN OR THE 

the pendulum. It requires a certain sharpness of shock to produce the 
condensation and rarefaction which constitute a wave of sound in air, 
'The more elastic and mobile the gas, the more able will it be to 
move away in front and to fill the space behind, and thus to oppose 
the formation of rarefactions and condensations by a vibrating body. 
Now hydrogen is much more mobile than air -, and hence the produc- 
tion of sonorous waves in it is attended with greater difficulty than 
in air. A rate of vibration quite competent to produce sound waves 
in the one may be wholly incompetent to produce them in the other.' 

"From this it would appear that hydrogen gas is not a desir- 
able substance for the promotion of sound, and that the 
trouble is not wholly, if at all, due to its lack of density. For 
the air of half density mixed with it would be more dense 
than before, and yet the sound under these circumstances 
in the above experiments was deadened. It would seem 
that there might be something in hydrogen antagonistic to 
sound. And this is sustained by the fact reported by 
those who have made the experiments, that, after having 
breathed hydrogen gas, the voice is weak. Mr. Tyndall's 
explanation of the difference of sound in hydrogen and in 
air, is, as usual with him, entirely superficial and insuffi- 
cient. It is, besides, dishonest, because he calls it satisfactory 
when it is not. For the things that he mentions in explanation 
are true of air or any other gas. Driven to it not by honesty but 
by necessity, Mr. Tyndall recognizes here for the first time the 
property of mobility, which belongs to all fluids and gases, and 
because of which the undulatory theory of sound is impossible. 
The elastic force of all gases, under the same pressure and tem- 
perature, is supposed to be the same. The mobility of gases is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 79 

thought to vary with the amount of viscosity they possess, and 
viscosity is ascribed to friction between the particles. Mobility 
is also thought to vary with the velocity of the particles of a 
gas, and the velocity of the particles of hydrogen is considered 
to be four times that of air. But whatever difference of 
mobility there may be in gases, is here practically unimportant, 
as all are sufficiently mobile to prevent the formation of any 
extended system of condensations and rarefactions. The air is 
like a great ocean, only more liable to disturbances, and these 
disturbances reach down further. But as it would be impos- 
sible for a system of waves formed of water to take place in the 
body of the ocean, so it would be for a similar system, formed 
of air, in the body of the air. 

"Mr. Tyndall's remarks about the pendulum are equally 
discreditable. The motion of a pendulum is often much faster 
than that of a tuning fork or fiddle string. As everything else 
which moves in air, it condenses the air in front and leaves 
rarefaction behind, far more pronounced than that left by a 
fork or string, as any one may verify by experiment with 
smoke, but it does not form any system of condensations and 
rarefactions which are propagated. For, as Ellen has before 
said, because of the mobility of the air this cannot be done. 

"Mr. Tyndall's remark that it requires a certain sharpness of 
shock to produce these hypothetical sound waves, is also mere 
assertion and entirely gratuitous. For by the hypothesis it 
requires nothing of the kind. It requires only the striking of 
the particles by the moving body. But Ellen will not discuss 
further the phrase 'sharpness of shock' until some scientist will 
attempt to explain what is meant by it. 



l8o ELLEN OR THE 

" Mr. Tyndall continues : 

'The motion of sound, like all other motion, is enfeebled by its 
transference from a light body to a heavy one. When the receiver 
which has hitherto covered our bell is removed, you hear how much 
more loudly it rings in the open air. When the bell was covered the 
aerial vibrations were first communicated to the heavy glass jar, and 
afterward by the jar to the air outside ; a great diminution of intensity 
being the consequence.' 

"This idea that the aerial vibrations are communicated to 
the glass jar, or any other solid body, by the mere slight move- 
ment of air particles, which must be a fact if this theory is 
true, is as ridiculous and senseless as it is possible for the mind 
to conceive. For it is well known that sounds uttered in 
enclosed rooms may and often do go through thick walls of 
brick or stone. And this theory teaches that they go through 
by bending these walls in and out. They could no more do it 
than a soap bubble could bend a mountain, or a thistle seed 
knock over a church. Why any sane person should accept 
such a proposition, — Ellen doesn't say believe, for she 
doesn't think any sane person could believe it, — -is inexplic- 
able to Ellen. Or, why scientists should not always remem- 
ber that not only a cause, but a sufficient cause, is necessary 
for any result, Ellen cannot understand. There would seem to 
be no reason why one should be a fool in order to be a scientist. 

"Again Mr. Tyndall says: 

' The intensity of a sound depends on the density of the air in which 
the sound is generated, and not on that of the air in which it is heard.* 

* Poisson, " Mecanique,"' vol. ii., p.. 707. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE IcS3 

Supposing the summit of Mont Blanc to be equally distant from the 
top of the Aiguille Verte and the bridge at Chamouni ; and supposing 
two observers stationed, the one upon the bridge and the other upon 
the Aiguille : the report of a cannon fired on Mont Blanc would reach 
both observers with the same intensity, though in the one case the 
sound would pursue its way through the rare air above, while in the 
other it would descend through the denser air below. Again, let a 
straight line equal to that from the bridge at Chamouni to the summit 
of Mont Blanc be measured along the earth's surface in the valley of 
Chamouni, and let two observers be stationed, the one on the summit 
and the other at the end of the line : the report of a cannon fired on 
the bridge would reach both observers with the same intensity, though 
in the one case the sound would be propagated through the dense air 
of the valley, and in the other case would ascend through the rarer air 
of the mountain. Finally, charge two cannon equally, and fire one of 
them at Chamouni and the other at the top of Mont Blanc : the one 
fired in the heavy air below may be heard above, while the one fired in 
the light air above is unheard below.' 

u If sound, as the theory holds, were caused by the vis viva 
of the air particles hitting the drum of the ear, it is difficult to 
see how these results could take place. For the vis viva of air 
of half density could not equal that of air of full density, unless 
the air particles had large additional velocity. Again, too, we 
are confronted with a fact suggesting that, as you cannot make 
brick without straw, so you cannot make sound without proper 
material. 

"Mr. Tyndall further says: 

'This weakening of the sound, according to the law of inverse 
squares, would not take place if the sound wave were so confined as to 



1 84 ELLEN OR THE 

prevent its lateral diffusion. By sending it through a tube with a 
smooth interior surface we accomplish this, and the wave thus confined 
may be transmitted to great distances with very little diminution of 
intensity. Into one end of this tin tube, fifteen feet long, I whisper in 
a manner quite inaudible to the people nearest to me, but a listener 
at the other end hears me distinctly. If a watch be placed at one 
end of the tube, a person at the other end hears the ticks, though 
nobody else does. At the distant end of the tube is now placed a 
lighted candle. When the hands are clapped at this end, the flame 
instantly ducks down at the other. It is not quite extinguished, 
but it is forcibly depressed. When two books, b b', Fig. 9, are clapped 
together, the candle is blown out.* You may here observe, in a rough 
way, the speed with which the sound wave is propagated. The instant 
the clap is heard the flame is extinguished. "I do not say that the time 
required by the sound to travel this tube is immeasurably short, but 
simply that the interval is too short for your senses to appreciate it. 




'That it is a pulse and not a puff of air is proved by filling one end 
of the tube with the smoke of brown paper. On clapping the books 
together no trace of this smoke is ejected from the other end. The 
pulse has passed through both smoke and air without carrying either of 
them along with it.' 

"It is perfectly evident to any sensible person that the candle 
is blown out by a puff of air, just as it is perfectly evident that 

* To converge the pulse upon the flame, the tube was caused to end in a cone. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 85 

when sound goes through a stone wall it does not make the 
wall bend in and out, but is carried through the interstices of 
the wall by some force sufficiently powerful to accomplish this 
result. Thus, a stream will find its way through impediments. 
With the stream the force operating is gravity ; with sound, 
unquestionably, some force similar to electricity. Sound 
spreads through different bodies because of its tenuity. The 
connection is doubtless interfered with or partly broken in 
passing abruptly from one medium to another, but sound is 
able to go through nearly all mediums and therefore it is cer- 
tain that it is of extreme tenuity. 

"There are several things to be proven by this tube, but 
none of them are favorable to this theory of sound. Ellen had 
a tube made, and tried this experiment. 

"To demonstrate that it was a puff of air that blew out the 
candle, Ellen first clapped the books with their sides or covers 
towards the larger end of the tube. In this case the sound 
would be the same, but the puff of air made would be driven at 
right angles to the tube. Of course the candle did not duck. 
Then Ellen tried the smoke, but had it blown in at the small 
end of the tube near the candle instead of at the flange end, 
fifteen feet away. Clapping books again, as at first, the 
smoke was driven two feet from the lower end. Mr. Tyn- 
dall had illustrated the fact that you could not drive smoke 
through a tube fifteen feet long, with one clap of books. Ellen 
found that you could do it with a sufficient number of claps. 
Ellen then tried the experiment with a fan and with the breath. 
In neither case was there any sound., but the candle was 
instantly affected as before. 



1 86 ELLEN OR THE 

" And it proves that a puff of air, which it would take a fan 
several seconds to drive in unconfined air, may be con- 
ducted through such a tube in an indistinguishable part of a 
second. These experiments are similar, excepting the tube. 
In each it is the same fan, operated in the same manner, and 
affecting the same or similar air. But in one case the action of 
the tube is added and the very different results are entirely 
due to this. It illustrates completely and accurately the 
differences which must take place betw r een a pulse in a 
tube and a pulse in unconfined air. The operation of the 
smoke put in at the larger end shows that, as in a longer and 
smaller tube when a tight-fitting piston is pushed in, each 
successive layer of air is shoved through the tube, and in suc- 
cession comes out at the small end ; the farthest layer from the 
cause of disturbance, that is the one nearest the candle, going 
out first and causing the candle to duck. For it is impossible to 
have air, that is, the particles of air, move to any extent against 
a candle without causing it to duck. And on the other hand, 
sounds do not thus affect a candle unless the normal 
vibration of its flame is the same as that of the body 
sounding. In that case a flame will be affected just as 
a pane of glass will vibrate to a clap of thunder, having the 
same normal vibration as itself; or the chords of a piano to 
a sound of the same pitch as themselves. Thus, too, one tun- 
ing fork will be set in vibration by the sounding of another of 
the same pitch, it is said, at a distance of ioo feet. The assump- 
tion of the scientists is that these sympathetic vibrations take 
place because of air waves, particles of air, in succession hit- 
ting the pane of glass, or tuning fork, or piano string. The 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 8/ 

assumption, too, is that air waves, whose existence is imper- 
ceptible to the most sensitive conditions, will do this. The 
tremor of the earth caused by a single flake of snow, falling 
upon the top of Mont Blanc, could every whit as easily accom- 
plish the result with every piano on earth, as could the hypo- 
thetical air waves with one piano, and, indeed, much more 
probably, because the snow flake on Mont Blanc is something 
real, whilst the air wave is entirely visionary. 

"It is very evident that these results come from some appro- 
priate and extraordinary force which vibration, or contact, the 
cause of vibration, has introduced. The rubbing of certain 
bodies will produce electricity. Very possibly electricity, or 
a substance similar to electricity enters into the production of 
sound. 

"We can easily imagine that a force, or substance, like elec- 
tricity might be able, by unknown laws, to get inside of a 
piano and make a wire vibrate, but we may be perfectly 
sure that no inadequate cause, as the movement of air par- 
ticles in the room outside or anywhere else, could accomplish 
this. 



88 ELLEN OR THE 



XII. 



( *r^OR some time it has seemed to Ellen that electrical 
* conditions enter into sound, and she has recently- 
come across the following evidence : 

"In a letter of M. Oersted, Professor of Philosophy at 
Copenhagen, to Professor Picted of Geneva, upon Sonorous 
Vibrations, published in the 'Philosophical Magazine' in 1806, 
vol. 24, is the following: 

'One would suppose that the change produced in elastic bodies, by 
the communication of motion, could scarcely be limited to the simple 
mechanical displacement of the part, but that in this modification it 
ought to have some other more intimate action. Every kind of friction 
produces not only heat, but electricity also. De la Place, and Biot, 
have already attracted the attention of philosophers to the first of these 
phenomena ; I am of the opinion that the latter of them requires much 
more attention. I always found in my experiments that sand, or dust, 
adheres much more to those parts to which the movement of the sonor- 
ous bodies had fixed it, than it did to other parts. I have often thrown 
fresh sand over a plate of glass, upon which I had already produced a 
figure. I shook it gently after having reversed it, and I always 
remarked that the sand which formed the figure remained adhering, 
while the other part detached itself. The adherence of the grains finer 
than those of sand is very remarkable. I also discovered, with the 
assistance of Coulomb's eloctrometer, indications of electricity in those 
plates which had emitted a sound; but I have not repeated these 
experiments sufficiently to enable me to detail them. I discovered on 
the above occasion, that the edges and angles of bodies act upon Cou- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 89 

lomb's electrometer almost always ; and I propose to myself a new 
course of experiments upon this subject. The celebrated Ritter, to 
whom I had communicated my experiments upon the part which elec- 
tricity acts in the phenomena of sound, had long ago discovered that 
the electrical pile of Volta is capable of producing sound, when a shock 
is received from it in the ears. In a work about to appear under the 
title of "A System of Electrical Bodies," this great philosopher makes 
it clear that a body acquires positive electricity by compression, and 
negative by dilatation. Thus we may say, that there are in each sound 
as many alternatives of electricity, positive and negative, as there are 
oscillations ; but the union of two electricities produce a commotion : 
thus there are in one sound as many extremely weak electrical commo- 
tions as there are oscillations. Each of these insulated commotions 
would be absolutely insensible ; but when received in a very great num- 
ber, in a period too small to distinguish the one from the other, they 
always produce a sensible effect, especially since positive electricity 
renders the organ more sensible for the negative than it was before, and 
vice versa. The sensible effect of the union of all these insensible 
commotions is sound. I confess that these ideas of M. Ritter appear 
contradictory to all the received opinions on the organ of hearing ; but 
it must also be confessed that our knowledge of all the organs of sense 
is as yet imperfect. I am of opinion, however, that the theory of M. 
Ritter agrees perfectly well with the ancient hypotheses. As for my 
own experiments, they may be easily repeated by any person, and some 
one perhaps may discover more than I have here described.' 

" Dr. Hans Christian Oersted was eminent as a physicist and 
especially recognized as authority in electricity. The Cham- 
bers' Encyclopaedia thus speaks of him : 

"In 181 1 Mr. Oersted wrote his famous essay on the identity of 
chemical and electrical forces, in which he first developed the ideas on 



190 ELLEN OR THE 

which were based his great discovery of the intimate connection exist- 
ing between magnetism and electricity and galvanism. He thus made 
good his claim to be regarded as the originator of the new science of 
electro-magnetism. The enunciation of this theory was followed by 
many important experiments in regard to the compression of water, 
and by numerous other chemical discoveries. The influence which 
Dr. Oersted exerted on the science of the day by his discoveries, was 
recognized by the learned in every country, and honors increased upon 
him with increasing years.' 

"The following statement, suggestive of a similarity between 
sound and electricity, Ellen saw in the 'London, Edinburgh 
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine,' vol. 4, though she did 
not see the articles referred to : 

' The investigations of Helmholtz on the divergence of sound from 
the open end of a cylindrical tube (Crelle, i860), broke ground for the 
first time in the knowledge of the manner in which sound actually 
passes over from the inside of a tube into the surrounding air. The 
work was based on the modern potential analysis ; and some of the 
chief difficulties in it were overcome by giving to the various expres- 
sions the meaning they would have had in the theory of electricity, and 
employing the results that belong specially to that theory. 

1 Lord Rayleigh treated important portions of the same subject in a 
paper in the " Philosophical Transactions," 187 1 (Mr. Strutt " On Reso- 
nance "). The analysis is much simplified, but it is essentially the same 
in principle as Helmholtz's. The reference to electrical analogies is 
used freely.' 

"There is a marked similarity between the laws governing 
the conduction of electricity and sound through solids in the 
form of wires or rods. Thus ' Electricity in the Service of 
Man ' says : 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 91 

' The laws of the resistance of conductors may therefore he collected 
as follows : 

' i. The resistance of a conducting wire is proportional to its length. 

' 2. The resistance of a conducting wire is inversely proportional to 
the area of its cross section. 

' 3. The resistance of a conducting wire of a given length and thick- 
ness depends upon the specific resistance of the material of which it 
is made.' 

"Also in regard to sound, the 'London, Edinburgh and 
Dublin Philosophical Magazine,' vol. 27, page 548, says: 

1 The intensity of sound remains constant when one rod (conducting 
it) is replaced by another of the same material but the dimensions of 
which vary in the same proportion. By varying the length alone the 
intensity is changed ; in like manner it is changed also by varying the 
section while the length is constant. (The test was made with a 
tuning fork.)' 

"We have seen that Newton expounded in its present form 
this theory of sound, a thing that could not possibly, as Ellen 
thinks, have occurred had there then existed the knowl- 
edge of electricity which we have to-day. We have seen 
that light and sound are largely governed by the same 
laws. But this is not more certain than that electricity, heat, 
and light are all kindred substances. At the time of Newton 
electricity was just beginning to be examined, and was known 
only in its frictional form. Newton lived 1643- 1727 ; Franklin 
began his first experiments in electricity about 1740, but 
Galvani did not discover galvanic electricity until 1790, nor 
Volta the voltaic pile until 1800. In 1820 Oersted discovered 



I9 2 ELLEN OR THE 

the action of the galvanic current in the magnetic needle. 
Arago in 1820 and Davy in 1821 discovered the power of the 
electric current to magnetize iron and steel. Sebeck discovered 
thermo-electricity in 1822, and in 183 1 Faraday discovered 
induced currents of electricity. Since these dates have fol- 
lowed the great practical discoveries which to-day make elec- 
tricity the most remarkable of known forces 

"And yet, although all these greater discoveries on elec- 
tricity were made since Newton's time, he perceived the close 
connection between electrical conditions and those of sound, as 
is illustrated by the statement found in c Hutton's Mathematical 
Dictionary,' in the article on ' Electricity,' as follows : 

' Newton ascribes the action of electric bodies to an elastic fluid 
which easily penetrates glass, and the emission of it to the vibratory- 
motions of the parts of the excited bodies.' 

" It will be seen here that Newton ascribes the emission of 
electricity to exactly the same conditions that cause the emis- 
sion of sounds. 

" Ellen will now resume her review of Mr. Tyndall's book : 

'The celebrated French philosopher, Biot, observed the transmission 
of sound through the empty water-pipes of Paris, and found that he 
could hold a conversation in a low voice through an iron tube 3,1 20 feet 
in length. The lowest possible whisper, indeed, could be heard at this 
distance, while the firing of a pistol into one end of the tube quenched 
a lighted candle at the other.' 

"Here again we have a suggestion, though not a statement, 
for ignorance is often cowardly, that sound has to do with 
quenching a lighted candle. And it appears that M. Biot, 



m? 






'&& 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 95 

quite a noted scientist, fell into this delusion. Regnault, 
another French scientist and noted experimenter, was also thus 
misled. 

"The distance that a whisper is heard in a tube, as noted by 
M. Biot, illustrates that in a tube sound is not dissipated. In 
this it acts as any material thing would, ^confined by a tube. 

"And it must have a certain and fixed consistency, else 
it could not be the correlative of the sensation. And this 
consistency must be of a kind that can be reflected, else we 
could not have echoes, for that which makes the echo is the 
correlative of that which makes the sound. For under 
favorable conditions the echo is almost a perfect duplicate 
of the sound. But waves of water — or, if it were possible 
for them to exist, of air — do not have any such con- 
sistency, and they cannot be reflected with form unchanged, 
any more than a quart of water could be reflected with its 
form unchanged. And this because of the mobility of the 
air, that remarkable quality in fluids which permits their par- 
ticles to slip by each other with such great facility and 
thus distinguishes them from solids. Under the laws of nature 
the thing is impossible. Neither could any system of waves 
with their arrangement of particles unchanged be gathered in 
a megaphone. And therefore it is certain that sound, or the 
correlative of it, cannot consist of waves in any form, but 
must be an entity capable of being both reflected and 
gathered. 

" Mr. Airy, at one time Astronomer Royal of England, says 
in the 'London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Maga- 
zine,' vol. 33, page 404: 



ig6 ELLEN OR THE 

,'1 have never been able to observe the smallest trace of reflected 
wave from a surf, although at the same time I am utterly unable to 

account for the disposal of the vis viva. 

* * * .. * -s- -*- * $ 

' A broken-headed sea is not reflected by a vertical pier. When a 
broken-headed sea strikes a pier perpendicularly, it is thrown upwards : 
when it strikes obliquely, it is partly thrown upwards and partly it runs 
horizontally along the face of the pier. In neither case is there any 
reflection of the broken head, or any creation of a broken wave travel- 
ling in the opposite direction, although the swell is reflected according 
to the usually understood laws.' 

"This shows how scientists have been confused in regard to 
the reflection of water. Broken-headed seas are caused by the. 
force of the wind, and cannot be reflected as such when striking 
a perpendicular pier ; but a swell is under the action of gravity., 
both when striking the pier and when leaving it, and therefore 
is reflected with reverse form." 

"But a pulse in a tube is reflected, is it not, Ellen?" 
"From the further end of the tube, if closed, it is by necessity 
reflected because it cannot spread. That is, the matter form- 
ing it is reflected in the form of another pulse, but of necessity 
also with particles very differently situated. And since the 
character and quality of the sound depend upon the arrange- 
ment of whatever it is that makes sound, this arrangement can 
not be in the slightest degree injured without affecting the 
sound, nor much altered without destroying it. This fact is a 
constant and fatal objection to the theory, but is emphasized in 
this case of reflection, where, by the theory, an echo of the 
original sound becomes impossible. 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 1 97 

"That the sensation of sound must depend upon the correla- 
tive without, is beginning to be recognized by scientists. Thus 
Mr. Ganot says : 

'The timbre or stamp or quality is that peculiar property of note 
which distinguishes a note when sounded on one instrument from the 




Fig. 10. 

same note when sounded on another, and which by some is called the 
color. Thus when the C of the treble stave is sounded on a violin and 
on a flute, the two notes will have the same pitch ; that is, they are 
produced by the same number of vibrations per second, and they may 
have the same intensity, and yet the two notes will have very distinct 
qualities ; that is, their timbre is different. 

'If we were to represent graphically a compound note, we should 
proceed to construct a curve out of simple notes of different intensities 




Fig. 11. 

in the same manner as fig. 1 r is constructed from two simple notes of 
equal intensity represented by fig. 10. It is evident that the resulting 
curve will take different forms according to the presence or absence 
of different harmonics and to their different intensities; in other 
words, the quality or timbre of the notes produced by different 
instruments will depend upon the form of the curve representing vibra- 
tions producing the sound.' 

"Deschanel says : 



198 ELLEN OR THE 

'Musical sounds may, however, be alike as regards pitch and loud- 
ness, and may yet be easily distinguishable. We speak of the quality 
of a singer's voice, and the tone of a musical instrument ; and we char- 
acterize the one or the other as rich, sweet, or mellow, on the one 
hand ; or as poor, harsh, nasal, etc., on the other. These epithets are 
descriptive of what musicians call timb?-c — a French word literally sig- 
nifying stamp. German writers on acoustics denote the same quality 
by a term signifying sound tint. It might equally well be called sound 
flavor. We adopt character as the best English designation. 

' Physically considered, as wave length and wave amplitude fall under 
the two previous heads, character must depend upon the only remain- 
ing point in which aerial waves can differ — namely their form, mean- 
ing by this term the law according to which the velocities and densities 
change from point to point of a wave. Every musical sound is more or 
less mingled with non-musical noises, such as puffing, scraping, twang- 
ing, hissing, rattling, etc. These are not comprehended under timbre 
or character in the usage of the best writers on acoustics. The grada- 
tions of loudness which characterize the commencement, progress, and 
cessation of a note, and upon which musical effect often greatly 
depends, are likewise excluded from this designation. In distinguish- 
ing the sounds of different musical instruments, we are often guided as 
much by these gradations and extraneous accompaniments as by the 
character of the musical tones themselves. 

* * $ **#'#'«•.*'.*''*''■ 

< Character or timbre, which we have already defined, must of neces- 
sity depend on the form of the vibration of the aerial particles by 
which sound is transmitted, the word form being used in the meta- 
phorical sense there explained, for in the literal sense the form is always 
a straight line.' 

"Prof. Pietro Blaserna in his 'Theory of Sound' says: 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PTNE 1 99 

'The third characteristic difference of musical sounds is their quality 
or timbre Suppose that the same note is sung by different human 
voices, and played on the pianoforte, violin, flute, etc., it does not 
require a delicate musical ear to recognize that these notes, although of 
the same loudness and pitch, are nevertheless different from each 
other. Our ear goes even farther in this direction, and not only dis- 
tinguishes between violin and flute, but even between one violin and 
another by a different maker. The difference is very marked, and 
makes itself felt in a most remarkable manner in the price of the instru- 
ment. Thus, for example, whilst an ordinary violin costs a few pounds, 
many hundreds are paid for a good Stradivarius or N. Amati. The 
same may be said of all musical instruments, although the difference of 
price is not so great for most of them, as the modern manufacturers 
are in a position to furnish them in any desired number ; whilst violins 
increase in excellence and value with their age. 

'The difference of timbre is therefore very important, and very char- 
acteristic. In the human voice, which constitutes the most agreeable 
and richest monotone musical instrument, the variety is immense. 
There are scarcely any two individuals who have exactly the same 
timbre of voice. Timbre and inflection are the safest means we have 
of recognizing a person. 

' But the loudness of a note depends on the width, height, and 
length of the oscillations producing it. It may then be asked, in what 
two oscillations, of the same width and length, can differ so as to pro- 
duce so marked a difference as that of timbre. 

1 There are two methods of procedure possible in the study of differ- 
ent forms of oscillation, and of the causes that influence timbre. The 
curve of the oscillations may be traced graphically, and the differences 
between them may be examined thus, or the sounds produced by dif- 
ferent instruments may be analyzed in order to see if, besides the 
principal note that is heard, there are not other concomitant sounds or 



200 



ELLEN OR THE 



noises which alter the timbre of the simple note, and impress a special 
character on it. The question will be studied in this treatise by both 
methods, and they will be illustrated by the most important examples 
in each. As to the form of vibrations, it will be shown that account 
must be taken not only of the width and length of the oscillations, but 
also of the special form of the curve which represents them. Thus, for 




Fig. 12. 

example, the curves i, 2, 3, in fig. 12. have all three the same width 
ab, and the same length AB ; but the form is different for each one of 
them, and it is precisely on this special form that that which is called 
timbre depends.' 

" The ordinates of these curves are assumed to represent the 
velocities of the air particles in the different systems of waves. 
Ellen would like to know whether the particles in fig. 1 1 and 
in 2 or 3 of fig. 12 are supposed to move according to Mr. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 20I 

Newton's proposition, like a cycloidal pendulum ; that is, 
whether these represent the harmonic curve of sines? 

"Another fatal objection to the theory is that it teaches 
that sound goes at the same speed in a tube and out 
of a tube. But if it were a matter of vis viva the velocity 
would vary. For there is the same density of air in a tube 
as out of a tube, but out of a tube the mass is infinitely 
greater, and therefore if the velocity remained the same the vis 
viva would be infinitely greater, and hence would be infinitely 
great; which is infinitely absurd. It follows, too, that 
sound, if due to vis viva, must diminish in speed from 
beginning to end, which it does not do. Ellen is accept- 
ing here what the scientists say about vis viva — that it is 
half the mass into the square of the velocity. When a 
piston is pushed, or gas is exploded in a tube, the pulse 
formed will be confined, and therefore go a much longer 
distance and much faster than in unconfined air. But sound 
does not go faster. And therefore it is certain that sound is 
something very different from a pulse of air. 

"The old Pine must remember in all these discussions that 
air and all gases are composed of little bodies which have both 
weight and extension ; for we can confine these bodies in many 
different vessels precisely as we would sand or walnuts ; and 
they cannot escape. But air is not sound any more than 
pumpkins or mountains are sound ; though if thrown into vibra- 
tion it will produce sound. If the old Pine wants a piano to 
furnish his house with, he must go to a piano manufactory 
for it, where the machinery exists for making it, or at 
least he must get it somewhere where, in some manner, . it 



202 ELLEN OR THE 

was procured from such factory. For no other factory in aU 
the universe can make a piano. And so with sound. It is all 
made, every particle of it, by sound factories, and these are 
vibrating bodies. Ellen knows that the factories which make 
sound are very numerous, much more so than those which 
make pianos. Still they are factories, and the sounds, it 
ever finished, must be finished in them, just as butternuts, 
or turnips, or anything else which nature makes, are finished 
in the factories that make them. That is the way that 
things are made ; and the old Pine will have to get all his 
supplies ultimately from these sources, for there are no 
other. Nor can different things be remade or altered to advan- 
tage ; certainly not sounds, any more than soap bubbles could 
be after they had been launched, though pianos or turnips 
might be returned to the factories and repaired or made larger. 
"And thus sounds are turned out, and there are millions of 
them, and always they flow off as fast as they are made. Tha,t 
is what they are made for. And they go up as well as down, 
and go in all directions if unconfined, but act very differ- 
ently confined in a tube, or directed by a megaphone or 
speaking trumpet. In these cases they go straight ahead. 
There are just so many sounds, every one of them complete and 
all alike, when made by the same vibration. With air not con- 
fined in a tube they divide up and go everywhere, but with it 
confined they keep together and strengthen each other. For 
it is evident that the results of hearing come from an accumu- 
lation of sound; just as thirst is quenched not by a drop of 
water but by many drops, and hunger satisfied not by a single 
morsel but by a full meal. And Ellen thinks that this law is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 203 

universal in nature. We see not by a single particle of light, but 
by many of them. We exercise not by one step, but by many 
steps. We enjoy scenery not by one glance, but by many 
glances. We realize smell not from the effect of a single par- 
ticle of odor, but as a result of many of these. And so we 
. hear not from the effect of a single sound, but because of many 
of them. Perhaps the old Pine would have arranged all this 
better if he had created things?" 

"No," I said, "the old Pine is entirely satisfied with the way 
things are made, nor does he see how they could be improved." 
"Well, that's the way they are made," she said. "There is 
a wide limit of difference in the intensity or quantity of things. 
That sound is no exception can be most simply and fully 
demonstrated by the megaphone. For the megaphone collects 
the sound floating in an extended surface of air, and thus col- 
lected brings it to the ear as a funnel conducts a fluid, or a 
hopper grain. Always the result is to increase the intensity of 
a sound, and frequently we are able thus to hear distinctly 
sounds which without the megaphone we could not hear at 
all. The megaphone works precisely the same in gathering 
odor; and Ellen saw another very interesting illustration of 
this principle as follows : 

; The widespread sail of a ship, rendered concave by a gentle breeze, 
is a good collector of sound. "It happened," says Dr. Arnott, "once 
onboard a ship sailing along the coast of Brazil, far out of sight of 
land, that the persons walking on deck, when passing a particular spot, 
always heard very distinctly the sound of bells, varying as in human 
rejoicings. All on board came to listen and were convinced ; but the 
phenomenon was most mysterious. Months afterwards it was ascer- 



204 ELLEN OR THE 

tained, that, at the time of observation, the bells of the city of St. Sal- 
vador, on the Brazilian coast, had been ringing on the occasion of a 
festival ; their sound, therefore, favored by a gentle wind, had traveled 
perhaps ioo miles by smooth water, and had been brought to a focus 
by the sail on the particular spot where it was listened to. It appears 
from this that a machine might be constituted having the same relation 
to sound that a telescope has to sight." ' 

"The human ear in its flaring shape and labyrinthal pas- 
sages, is evidently intended for the gathering and reflection of 
sound. And thus all animals living in air, where the passage 
of sound is comparatively weak, have similar organs, which 
gather and convey the sounds to the auditory nerve; but in 
water, where sounds have more strength, they reach the 
auditory nerve of fishes through the bones of the head. 

"And therefore sound may be scattered everywhere and 
yet audible nowhere ; but if kept together we can hear it 
readily. This is the reason that sound is heard so far in a tube, 
and in the economy of nature there is no other possible explan- 
ation ; no other that doesn't lead to absurdities. 

"Another peculiarity of sound is mentioned by Francis 
Bacon, who says : 

' It is evident, and it is one of the strangest secrets in sounds, that 
the whole sound is not in the whole air only ; but the whole sound is 
also in every part of the air. So that all the curious diversity of 
articulate sounds of the voice of man or birds will enter at a small 
crannv unconfused.' 



WHISPERINGS OP AN OLD PINE 2QJ 



XIII. 

• ^ TT is, then, certain that sounds arc entities; that they arc 
* microscopical, and that the mill which makes them turns 
them out in great quantity exactly alike, just as screws, or pins, 
or bullets are made — all exactly alike. For it is no more 
remarkable that sound should be created in great quantities and 
spread than that mist should. 

" But what cause of motion is there when sound is pro- 
duced, and what are the things moved? 

"The immediate cause is vibration, which produces sound, 
and this sound radiates in all directions from the center 
of disturbance. In addition the vibrating body strikes what- 
ever is in its way, pushing it out of the way if light, and being 
itself stopped in its vibration if encountering a heavy body. 
But in no case can it make any body move faster than it moves 
itself. If anything struck by a vibrating body does move faster 
than this agitating body, it is because some new force is 
brought into action. Thus a tuning fork might hit some light 
body near enough to a stream to throw it in, when it might be 
carried away by the current, or it might throw some light body 
off a precipice and into the unopposed stream of gravitation, 
but there are no reasons to think that particles of air hit by it 
are urged on in their course any faster than the prong of the 
fork is moving, which is at the rate of but a few feet a second. 
Thus, if a vibrating prong hits water it will throw the drops a 
few inches in the direction of its movement, and with a little 



208 i ELLEN OR THE 

less speed than it moves itself. The particles of air it will push 
in similar manner, as can be observed by the use of smoke. 

''And this, and this only, takes place from the effect of a 
blow by the prong of the tuning fork. The assertion that any 
different result takes place is but an hypothesis, unproven and 
untrue. 

"Thus, in churning, the dasher hits, and must hit, the air or 
anything else in its path, and drive it out of the way ; but this 
air or anything else thus driven away is not butter — no more 
is it sound when a vibrating body hits it. There is not a 
phenomenon in nature which is not attended by some inci- 
dental results. The connection of things is such that it would 
be impossible for this to be otherwise." 

"It is quite a relief," I said, ''to find out that the absurd and 
impossible hasn't occurred. That is, that a thing moving seven 
feet a second hasn't, by hitting something else, started it off 
at a pace of 1090 feet. Of course every sensible person knows 
all the time that this doesn't happen, as he knows that a great 
many other things do not happen which occasionally some of 
the most eminent scientists say do. All these instances but 
illustrate the habit so prevalent, indeed universal with scientists, 
of knowing so many things that are not so. And yet it is 
a relief to hear an intelligent exposure of all such nonsense." 

"Yes," she said, "it is always a relief to have a thing 
explained so we can understand it. And Ellen never could see 
what scientists and instructors make books for, to be used as 
text books upon a subject, without explaining that subject,, 
at least in part. It seems to Ellen just as if they had mistaken 
their vocation. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 209 

" Mr. Tyndall continues : 

1 The village of Erith was some miles distant from the magazine, but 
in nearly all cases the windows were shattered ; and it was noticeable 
that the windows turned away from the origin of the explosion suffered 
almost as much as those which faced it. Lead sashes were employed 
in Erith Church, and these, being in some degree flexible, enabled the 
windows to yield to pressure without much fracture of the glass. As 
the sound wave reached the church it separated right and left, and, for 
a moment, the edifice was clasped by a girdle of intensely compressed 
air, every window in the church, front and back, being bent inward. 
After compression, the air within the church no doubt dilated, tending 
to restore the windows to their first condition. The bending in of the 
windows, however, produced but a small condensation of the whole 
mass of air within the church ; the recoil was therefore feeble. in com- 
parison with the pressure, and insufficient to undo what the latter had 
accomplished.' 

"Here is another case of the most ridiculous mingling" of 
a pulse of air caused by expanding gas, or the expanding gas 
itself, with what Mr. Tyndall calls a sound wave. Beyond all 
possible question, the windows were broken by the same 
force, or forces, that destroyed the magazine. As with the 
tube where the candle was blown out, Mr. Tyndall confused 
puffs of air with sound, so here he confuses exploding gas 
with sound. It is not very strange that he should, for by 
his theory this pulse is the sound wave. And, indeed, right 
here the extreme folly and utter impossibility of this hypo- 
thetical sound wave is demonstrated. If there is such a thing, 
the pulse in a tube, or the movement of unconfined air from 
whatever cause, is it. But such pulse and such movement 



2IO ELLEN OR THE 

occur as well without sound as with. And the sound alone is 
not sufficient to produce it. Therefore it is certain that sound 
is something entirely different from a pulse of air, though often 
accompanying it; as much so as a body floating in, or carried 
by, water, is different from the water that carries it. 

"Mr. Tyndall, on page 52, begins his discussion of the 
velocity of sound as follows : 

' Two conditions determine the velocity of propagation of a sonorous 
wave ; namely, the elasticity and the density of the medium through 
which the wave passes. The elasticity of air is measured by the pres- 
sure which it sustains or can hold in equilibrium. At the sea level this 
pressure is equal to that of a stratum of mercury about thirty inches 
high. At the summit of Mont Blanc the barometric column is not 
much more than half this height ; and, consequently, the elasticity of 
the air upon the summit of the mountain is not much more than half 
what it is at the sea-level. 

' If we could augment the elasticity of air, without at the same time 
augmenting its density, we should augment the velocity of sound. Or, 
if allowing the elasticity to remain constant we could diminish the 

density, we should augment the velocity. 

* * * * * * * * 

'The velocity of sound in air, at the freezing temperature, is 1,090 
feet a second. 

'At all lower temperatures the velocity is less than this, and at all 
higher temperatures it is greater. 

'With the same elasticity the density of hydrogen gas is much iess 
than that of air, and the consequence is that the velocity of sound in 
hydrogen far exceeds its velocity in air. The reverse holds good for 
heavy carbonic-acid gas. If density and elasticity vary in the same 
proportion, as the law of Boyle and Mariotte proves them to do in air 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PTNE x 2ll 

when the temperature is preserved constant, they neutralize each 
other's effects \ hence, if the temperature were the same, the velocity of 
sound upon the summits of the highest Alps would be the same as that 
at the mouth of the Thames. But, inasmuch as the air above is colder 
than that below, the actual velocity on the summits of the mountains is 
less than that at the sea-level. To express this result in stricter 
language, the velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the 
elasticity of the air ; it is also inversely proportional to the square root 
of the density of the air. Consequently, as in air of a constant tem- 
perature elasticity and density vary in the same proportion, and act 
oppositely, the velocity of sound is not affected by a change of density, 
if unaccompanied by a change of temperature. 

' There is no mistake more common than to suppose the velocity of 
sound to be augmented by density. The mistake has arisen from a 
misconception of the fact that in solids and liquids the velocity is 
greater than in gases. But it is the higher elasticity of those bodies, 
in relation to their density, that causes sound to pass rapidly through 
them. Other things remaining the same, an augmentation of density 
always produces a diminution of velocity. Were the elasticity of. water, 
which is measured by its compressibility, only equal to that of air, the 
velocity of sound in water, instead of being more than quadruple the 
velocity in air, would be only a small fraction of that velocity. Both 
density and elasticity, then, must be always borne in mind; the 
velocity of sound being determined by neither taken separately, but by 
the relation of the one to the other. 

"There is here manifested a most monstrous ignorance of 
the meaning of the word elasticity. This is what Ellen has 
referred to. In any legitimate use of the word there is no 
truth whatever in these statements. 

"All text books state that fluids are perfectly elastic. If a 



2 12 , ELLEN OR THE 

thing were perfectly round, it would be quite difficult for it to 
be more round. Then water and air are equally elastic, both 
being perfectly so. For the definition of elasticity is 'That 
property which enables a body to resume its original form, 
when the force which altered that form or volume ceases to act.' 
Water is much denser than air. Then by the formula that the 
speed of sound equals the square root of the elasticity divided 
by the square root of the density, sound should go much faster 
in air than in water. But it goes about four times as fast in 
water as in air. Take lead and air. Lead is much more dense 
and not at all elastic. Then by the formula sound should 
go much faster in air, but it does go much faster in lead. 
And thus again is demonstrated the falsity of the theory. 

"Tt is often impossible in reading scientific works upon 
this subject to tell whether the velocity of sound given for 
different bodies, comes from experiment or theory. Often, 
if not generally, it is from theory, and so the proof given 
that a theory is true is derived from the theory itself. 
That is, this theory of sound would require in some sub- 
stance the speed of the so-called sound wave to be about 
four times that in air, because such substance is about 
one-sixteenth as dense with the same supposed elastic force. 
Therefore the scientists or text books, assuming the theory true, 
assert, without experiment, that the speed in this medium is 
four times as fast, and afterwards draw upon this statement to 
prove the theory. The old Pine will see that in doing this 
they have a sure thing, if they are not found out. 

"And then again, where experiments are made, the result 
is questionable until verified, especially if made by parties 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2 13 

either unskilled or biased in favor of a theory. So far as Ellen, 
can learn, the only experiments which have been made to test 
the speed of sound were in air, water, and iron. That in air 
did not at all agree with the theory, and in iron the speed was 
about two-thirds what the theory called for. In water, those 
experimenting, supposed a compression which would make 
the theoretical agree with the observed velocity. Thus in the 
'Book on Sound and Vibrations,' by Mr. Air)-, Ellen finds 
(page 144) : 

' Experiments made by some philosophers in the compressibility of 
water, gave for the compression produced by the weight of one atmos- 
phere 49.5 millionth part of the whole. From this, using formula sim- 
ilar to those in Article 62, they inferred a theoretical velocity of 1,42(8 
metres, agreeing well with that which was observed.' 

" Article 62 says : 

'The theory of the transmission of vibrations through fluids is embar- 
rassed with a complication from which that of transmission through 
solids is free. The ordinary laws of equality of pressure in all direc- 
tions apply, apparently, in the same manner to those sudden shocks 
which are distributed by pulses similar to those of sound, as those 
slower communications of motions which are transmitted by visible 
waves. We have remarked, when in a barge on the sea at some 
distance from the vertical of the spot where a large quantity of 
gunpowder was fired at about 60 feet depth, that a sudden shock 
was felt upwards at the bottom of the barge long before there was 
the smallest sign of a common wave. Here the shock had been 
communicated by molecular transmission in the same manner as' 
through an iron bar, but with this difference of dispersion, that it 
had diverged through a solid angle.' 



2 14 ELLEN OR THE 

"And here is illustrated most completely how sound has 
nothing to do with waves, but in some way is conveyed through 
the water, swiftly and without its perceptible disturbance, as 
electricity is conveyed through bodies." 

"But," I said, "as Ellen has suggested, doesn't the dimculty 
referred to come from the use of the wrong word — that is, the 
use of 'elasticity ' where 'modulus of elasticity' is intended?" 

il Ellen hardly sees that such change would assist much in 
the explanation, but, as she has said, sound may be influenced 
by the density and elastic force of bodies. Yet Ellen thinks it 
has a speed of its own. Ellen does not think that sound 
is electricity. Neither does she think that heat, light, mag- 
netism, and electricity are all the same thing, any more than 
she thinks that the, different fluids which we are acquainted 
with, like water, . or sap, or milk, or cider, or molasses 
are the same, or that the different gases, as oxygen, nitrogen, 
hydrogen and others, are the same. She knows these are not 
the same, that they are essentially different, and some of them 
very different, but they are all fluids or gases and governed by 
the different laws which govern fluids and gases, and in this 
respect they are similar. And so Ellen's common sense tells 
her it must be with those substances which are composed 
of that form of matter which the great physicist, Mr, Faraday., 
has suggested might properly be spoken of as a fourth 
division of matter, under the name of radiant matter. With 
the universality of nature's laws it would be impossible for 
this to be otherwise. And so we know that there must be, as 
we know that there are, many different kinds of things made 
from radiant matter, chief among which are electricity and 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 215 

masrnetism, lisjht, heat, and sound. And the first of all the 
series, and one of the most beautiful and important, is sound. 

"Nor can Ellen think of anything more foolish than to sup- 
pose that all of these things are the results of the different 
movements more or less rapid of the same material or sub- 
stance. This is as utterly senseless as to suppose that water 
is the basis of all fluids, with a certain motion making milk, 
with another wine, with others molasses, cider, beer, ale, — all 
the results of different motions or vibrations. 



2 1 6 ELLEN OR THE 



XIV 



^QOUND cannot move-in a so-called vacuum, but can move 
^ in man}' different bodies. And as it is impossible for 
air to enter man}' of these bodies, it is certain that air is not 
essential to the transmission of sound, and that sound is com- 
posed of something far more subtle than air. For air is easily 
confined within many different vessels, but sound is not. Air 
cannot enter solid bodies, but sound can, and passes more 
readily through them than it does in fluids and gases. For 
the action of this subtle substance, air or some other body is 
necessary, just as the earth is necessary as a bed in order that 
a stream may exist; or the air is necessary in order that a 
bird may fly; or, indeed, just as a medium is necessary for the 
existence of many things. And thus as a matter of fact, so fat- 
as we know, one medium always exists in another. Similar to 
sound, electricity does not readily pass through what is called a 
vacuum, but is conducted with greater or less facility through 
mam- different bodies. 

"It is stated in the 'Royal Transactions,' vol. 26, page 367, 
that experiments by Hawksbee show that sound made by a bell 
in space filled with air was not transmitted through a surround- 
ing vacuum. Another experiment showed that sound was 
conveyed by a tube from an inner space filled with air and con- 
taining the sounding bell, through a surrounding vacuum to 
the outside freely, but if this tube were stopped by the finger 




Ice- Bound. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2IQ 

sound would scarcely be heard. The same sound was not 
prolonged more than in open air. It also appeared from Mr. 
Hawksbee's experiments that when the air was condensed in a 
receiver the sound of a suspended bell was stronger than in 
natural air, and its intensity increased with the degree of con- 
densation. 

"Mr. J. F. Herschel, in his article on Sound in the 'Encyclo- 
paedia Metropolitana,' refers to the fact that the intensity of 
sound is diminished in rarefied air, but adds: 

*' The height, however, to which an atmosphere, or medium convey- 
ing sound extends, far exceeds any attainable on mountains, by balloons, 
or even by the lightest clouds. The great meteor of 1783 produced a 
distinct rumbling sound, although its height above the earth's surface 
was full 50 miles at the time of its explosion (see Philosophical Trans- 
actions, 1784). The sound produced by the explosion of the meteor 
of 1 7 19, at an elevation of at least 69 miles, was heard as " the report 
of a very great cannon or broadside," shook the doors and windows of 
houses and threw r a looking glass out of its frame and broke it (Phil. 
Trans., vol. 30, page 978). These heights are deduced by calculation 
from observations too unequivocal, and agreeing too well with each 
other to allow of doubt. Scarcely less violent was the sound caused by 
the bursting of the meteor of July 17, 1771, near Paris; the height of 
which, at the moment of explosion, is assigned by LeRoy at 20,598 
toises, or about 25 miles (Mem. Acad. Par.. 177 1, page 668). The 
report of a meteor in 1756 threw down several chimneys at Aix in 
Provence, and was taken for an earthquake. These instances and 
others which may be adduced are sufficient to show that sound can be 
excited in, and conveyed by, air of an almost inconceivable tenuity 
(for such it must be at the heights here spoken of) provided the 
exciting cause be sufficiently powerful and extensive. It may however 



220 ELLEN OR THE 

be contended, and not without some probability, that at these enormous 
heights sound may owe its propagation to some other medium more 
rare and elastic than air, and extending beyond the limits of the atmos- 
phere of air and vapor. 

-& * -& & * -:& ■& -:ic- 

'The report of the meteor of 1783 was heard at Windsor Castle ten 
minutes after its disappearance.' 

"The above would seem to show that sound takes place in 
atmosphere of great rarity, and if intense enough can be heard 
by the human ear. It also suggests another resemblance 
between sound and electricity, for the latter will pass through a 
vacuum only when the current is very intense. 

" Mr. Tyndall next introduces one of the most extraordinary 
fiascos of this theory, as follows : 

'We now come to one of the most delicate points in the whole 
theory of sound. The velocity through air has been determined by 
direct experiment ; but knowing the elasticity and density of the air, it 
is possible, without any experiment at all, to calculate the velocity with 
which a sound wave is transmitted through it. Sir Isaac Newton made 
this calculation, and found the velocity at the freezing temperature to 
be 916 feet a second. This is about one-sixth less than actual obser- 
vation had proved the velocity to be, and the most curious suppositions 
were made to account for the discrepancy. Newton himself threw out 
the conjecture that it was only in passing from particle to particle of 
the air that sound required time for its transmission ; that it moved 
instantaneously through the particles themselves. He then supposed 
the line along which sound passes to be occupied by air particles for 
one-sixth of its extent, and thus he sought to make good the missing 
velocity. The very art and ingenuity of this assumption were sufficient 
to throw doubt on it ; other theories were therefore advanced, but the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 221 

great French mathematician, Laplace, was the first to completely solve 
the enigma. I shall now endeavor to make you thoroughly acquainted 
with his solution.' 

"The statement above that Sir Isaac Newton found the 
velocity of sound at the freezing temperature to be 916 feet a 
second is entirely a misleading one, and not true. For, as 
Ellen has already explained, the whole calculation of Mi*. New- 
ton was based upon an hypothesis that there were pulses in 
air, in regard to which, the only essential point in the discus- 
sion, Mr. Newton advanced no opinion whatever. And there- 
fore the calculation of Mr. Newtcn, although it has been used 
to base the undulatory theory of sound upon, and is the only 
basis that that theory has, is without practical interest. It is 
impossible to make this statement too strong. As the basis of a 
theory this whole calculation of Mr. Newton is absolutely 
without significance, nor did Mr. Newton himself ever state 
otherwise. It seems to Ellen that text books would do well to 
take this into consideration. 

"Why curious suppositions, as Mr. Tyndall states, were 
made to account for the discrepancy between theory and 
experiment in the speed of sound, does not appear, The 
natural explanation would be that the theory was false. 

44 Mr. Tyndall's reason for doubting Mr. Newton's explana- 
tion shows the innate honesty of a scientist; but Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia, not being so honest, says that the fact that 
sound went in rarefied air at the same speed as in normal air, 
disproved Mr. Newton's theory. As a matter of fact Mr. 
Newton's hypothesis for the discrepancy between the theo- 
retical and experimental speed of sound, upon the supposition 



2? 2 ELLEN OR THE 

that the hypothesis upon which he founded his proposition was 
true, was a very proper one. For in a row of elastic balls 
touching each other, the motion passes much quicker than 
where there are spaces between the balls. We Avill now see 
with what success Mr. Laplace takes Mr. Newton's place, 
although the hypothesis upon which Mr. Newton's proposition 
was based, being still unproven, the explanation has no prac- 
tical importance.. Mr. Tyndall continues: 

1 Into this strong cylinder of glass, which is accurately bored 
and quite smooth within, fits ail air-tight piston. By pushing 
the piston down, I condense the air beneath it, heat being at the same 
time developed. A scrap of amadou attached to the bottom of the 
piston is ignited by the heat generated by compression. If a bit of 
cotton wool dipped into bisulphide of carbon be attached to the piston, 
when the latter is forced down, a flash of light, due to the ignition of 
the bisulphide of carbon vapor, is observed within the tube. It is thus 
proved that when air is compressed heat is generated. By another 
experiment it may be shown that when air is rarefied cold is developed. 
This brass box contains a quantity of condensed air. I open the cock, 
and permit the air to discharge itself against a suitable thermometer : 
the sinking of the instrument immediately declares the chilling of 
the air.' 

u ;Mr. Tyndail in stating that ( it is thus proved that when 
air is compressed, heat is generated,' left out the words 'in a 
tube.' He told the truth, but not the whole truth. He 
assumes afterwards that very slightly condensed unconfined air 
produces heat. There is no evidence that this is true. And 
practically it is not true. For it is compression that produces 
heat, but if a thing can glide out of the way of another, it is 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2 2$ 

hot much; if at all, compressed. Ellen can well imagine that 
a scientist might suppose that air compressed in a tube would 
act the same as though it were unconrined. For this is the way 
they are made up. They are unable to see a hole in a ladder. 
Nor do they know that there are any holes in a skimmer, but 
suppose it is tight like a quart cup. But Ellen knows very 
well that the old Pine would not be deceived this way." 

"No," I said, "the old Pine can see that the two cases are 
very different." 

" And Ellen is happy to admit that there is occasionally a 
scientist who distinguishes between what he knows and what 
he does not. Thus Rev. James Challis,for many years Pro- 
fessor of Astronomy in Oxford University, England, and one 
of the ablest mathematicians of the century, suggested that 

* As an experiment only showed that the effect is to raise the temper- 
ature when the developed heat acts on a very limited portion of air, we 
are not justified in supposing the same effect to take place when the 
air is unlimited. ' 



'■ But little differences of this kind are generally not considered 
between scientists. For although the difference were as great as 
the distance of the East from the West, the theory derived by 
neglecting it, if accepted, would be every whit as good to teach, 
and might pass muster for a hundred years or through the 
lifetime of those most interested. It is so much more satis- 
factory to teach something and get paid for it, than to say that 
you do not know and get no pay. Both profit and vanity are 
interested, and the ready excuse is always at hand, if it is not 
true it's the best we have. It is thus that many an hypothesis 



224 ELLEN OR THE 

has done good work for years, which had hardly a leg to stand 
on. But at last, of course, all such have to be abandoned. 
Probably no two false ones have lived longer than the 
Ptolemaic system of astronomy and this undulatory theory of 
sound. And probably also there were never two important 
hypotheses more completely at variance with true scientific 
and philosophical principles. One of them has gone, and the 
other totters to its grave. 

"It is a fact that compression produces heat. If iron is 
struck with a hammer, heat is produced. But experiment shows 
that less and less is produced as the iron is more and more 
compressed, and the statement is made that it will at last grow 
cold under the hammer. And thus it seems to be proven 
that it is the compression that brings out the heat, the 
striking itself or the force exerted in pressing having 
nothing whatever to do with the supply. The heat is, of 
course, a substance contained in things, and it would 
appear to be the principal cause of their expansion. It is 
pressed out from bodies, as water is pressed out of a sponge." 

" But the present theory is that heat, too, is a mode of 
motion ; that is, that it is caused and transmitted by the con- 
stant movement of the molecules of bodies, is it not, Ellen?" 
I asked. m 

"Yes," she said, "this is a part of the delusion of the 
scientists. For they have gone quite mad on modes of motion, 
and, as Ellen has had occasion before to remark, do not 
question the ability of a body to move in different and 
contrary directions, or in many of them at the same 
instant of time. Thus it is assumed that the particles of 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 225 

ether, itself a mere figment of the brain, by the difference of 
their movements cause both heat, light, and all the different 
colors. That is, scientists suppose that heat, light, and ail the 
colors, not to mention electricity and magnetism, are caused 
by the impossible movements of an imaginary fluid. But it is 
also assumed that heat is produced by a similar movement of 
the molecules of solid bodies, and that different temperatures 
are caused by different rates of motion. And at the same 
time that the particles of bodies are moving one way for 
heat, it is assumed that they are moving other ways for sound, 
and many different ways for many different sounds. And 
thus, too, the ether, by the theory, must vibrate one way for 
electricity, another way for light, another for heat, and a dozen 
different ways, more or less, for color. And so the different 
kinds of all these things, by undulatory theories, are made by 
different degrees or characters of motions. Thus Ganot says, 
in speaking of heat : 

'On the second hypothesis the heat of a body is caused by an 
extremely rapid oscillating or vibratory motion of its molecules ; and 
the hottest bodies are those in which the vibrations have the greatest 
velocity and the greatest amplitude. At any given time the whole of 
the molecules of a body possess energy of motion, which is the heat 
they contain. To increase their temperature is to increase this energy ; 
10 lower their temperature is to decrease their energy. Hence, on this 
view, heat is not a substance but a condition of matte?', and a condition 
which can be transferred from one body to another. When a heated 
body is placed m contact with a cooler one, the former cedes more 
molecular motion than it receives ; but the loss of the former is the 
equivalent of the gain of the latter. 



226 ELLEX OR THE 

* It is also assumed that there is an imponderable elastic etner, which 
pervades all matter and infinite space. A hot body sets this in rapid 
vibration, and the vibrations of this ether being communicated to mate- 
lial objects set them in more rapid vibration ; that is, increase their 
temperature. Here we have an analogy with sound ; a sounding body 
is in a state of vibration, and its vibrations are transmitted by atmos- 
pheric air to the auditory apparatus in which is produced the sensation 
of sound. 

* -£ * * * * % * 

i Assuming that the heat of bodies is due to the motion of their par- 
ticles, we may admit the following explanation as to the nature of this 
motion in the various forms of matter : 

' In solids the molecules of even the most rigid bodies have a kind* of 
.vibratory motion about certain fixed positions. This motion is prob- 
ably very complex; the constituents of the molecule may oscillate 
about each other, besides the oscillation of the molecule as a whole: 
and this latter again may be a to-and-fro motion, or it may be a rotary 
motion about the center. In cases in which external forces, sucn as 
violent shocks, act upon the body, the molecules may acquire fresh 
positions. 

' In the liquid state the molecules have no fixed positions. They 
can rotate about their centers of gravity, and the center of gravity itself 
may move. But the motion due to collisions, compared with the 
mutual attraction of the molecules, is not sufficient to separate the 
molecules from each other. A molecule no longer adheres to particular 
adjacent ones; but it does not spontaneously leave them except to 
come into the same relation to fresh ones as to its previous adjacent 
ones. Thus in a liquid there is a vibratory, rotatory, and progressive 
motion of the molecules. 

' In the gaseous state the molecules are entirely without the sphere of 
their mutual attraction. They fly forward in straight lines according to 
the ordinary laws of motion, until they impinge against other molecules 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 22] 

or against a fixed envelope which they cannot penetrate, and then fly- 
off in another direction, with, in the main, their original velocity. If 
the molecules were in space, where no external force could act upon 
them, they would fly apart, and disappear in infinity. But if contained 
in any vessel, the molecules continually impinge in all directions against 
the sides, and thus arises the pressure which a gas exerts on its vessel 
' The perfection of the gaseous state, or what may be regarded as an 
ideal gas, implies that the space actually occupied by the molecules of 
the gas is infinitely small compared with the entire volume of the gas; 
that the time occupied by the impact of a molecule either against 
another molecule, or against the sides of the vessel, is infinitely small 
in comparison with the interval between any two impacts ; and that the 
influence of molecular attraction is infinitely small. When these con- 
ditions are not fulfilled the gas partakes more or less of the nature of a 
liquid, and exhibits certain deviations from Boyle's law (183). This is 
the case with all gases ; to a very slight extent with the less easily con- 
densable gases, but to a far greater extent with vapors and the more 
condensable gases, especially near their points of liquefaction. These 
are now explained by the modification which Van der Waals has intro- 
duced into the equation for gases (185).' 

"These arc the words of one of the ablest instructors in 
physics, who wants to sell his book." 

" And does he not know these things that he states so posi- 
tively, Ellen?" I asked. 

" He has not the slightest knowledge of them," she answered. 
"They are all hypotheses about things which, in another por- 
tion of his book, as Ellen has before mentioned, Mr. Ganot 
says are completely unknown." 

"And this is what they call science?" I said. 

"Yes," she answered, "this is what they call science, though 



2 28 ELLEN OR THE 

its true name is ignorance, and a very dense ignorance it is. 
But there is also an element of fraud in it; for it answers as a 
basis for the pretense of superior knowledge. But Mr. Ganot, 
it is true, qualifies by prefixing his statement with the para- 
graph 'Assuming that the heat of bodies is due to the motion 
of their particles,' etc.'' 

"And is the ether composed of molecules or particles?" I 
asked. 

"It is composed of nothing," she said; "it being absolutely 
and only a thing of the imagination. So that it has or may be 
supposed to have as many different compositions as there are 
persons to imagine it. And hence it follows that everything 
connected with the undulatory theories of light, heat, etc., that 
is, those that are supposed to be formed from this imaginary- 
thing called ether, are without even a basis of existence other 
than that of the imagination. And all of these imaginary 
theories are based upon this impossible one of sound." 

"Then," I said, "there is no truth in the mode of motion 
theories?" 

"None whatever," she answered. "They only represent, 
at the most, what scientists think would be a good method 
of creation, though it is perfectly evident that nature works 
by a very different method, the substantial one of the combina- 
tion of the different elements and substances in different 
proportions. Ellen likes nature's way the best." 

"But," I said, "Ellen, how can scientists suppose that 
to occur which all our knowledge shows us never occurs, and 
is impossible?" 

"Because of their lack of good sense, for ignorance alone 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD VINE 231 

does not explain it. Scientists are very prone to speak of the 
doctrines of religion as superstitions, but the old Pine will sec 
that the superstitions of science are as dense as or denser than 
any that ever existed in religion ; for superstition is but the 
belief of something repugnant to reason, and surely there 
could be nothing more repugnant than that a body is going 
a dozen different and contrary ways, more or less, or two 
different and contrary ways at the same instant. 

"But a large if not a principal part of the enunciations of 
science, together with the loads of mathematics with which they 
are encumbered, are as utterly senseless, absurd, and impossible 
as the old nursery rhyme, 

' Hey diddle diddle, 
The cat's in the fiddle, 

The cow jumped over the moon ; 
The little dog laughed to see such a craft, 
And the dish ran away with the spoon.' 

" For always in nature the principle of limitation exists. 
Nor is it difficult, if we use good sense, to perceive the nature 
of this law. And thus we know that it would be as possible 
for the cow to jump over the moon, as for a body to be mov- 
ing in two opposite directions at the same instant of time ; or 
even for a thing to pass another in any different manner from 
that which we see universally established in nature for such an 
occurrence. For natural laws are not only fixed, but they 
are universal in their character. Nor is any law more certain 
than that by which things are created, either naturally or arti- 
ficially; for always this law is the same, and it would be as 
sensible to suppose that by hitting a base ball it would become 



252 ELLEN OR THE 

a pumpkin, as that by a mere change of movement in a body it 
would become something else. 

"In unconfined air heat is not engendered by any ordinary 
cause of condensation. This can be tested by the movement 
of a fan or book or cloth indefinitely continued, which, of 
course, condenses the air far more than does a tuning fork, or 
fiddle string, or insect which, by rasping its leg against its wing, 
makes a noise that may be heard for a long distance, — or any 
ordinary cause of sound. It is demonstrated, too, by the fact 
that air condensed by wind is not thus perceptibly heated. 
In all these cases the air is moved, but not compressed. But 
it is not movement but compression that produces heat. 

"Mr. Tyndall continues: 

'All that you have heard regarding the transmission of a sonorous 
pulse through air is, I trust, still fresh in your minds. As the pulse 
advances it squeezes the particles of air together, and two results follow 
from this compression. Firstly, its elasticity is augmented through the 
mere augmentation of its density. Secondly, its elasticity is augmented 
by the heat of compression. It was the change of elasticity which 
resulted from a change of density that Newton took into account, and 
he entirely overlooked the augmentation of elasticity due to the second 
cause just mentioned. Over and above, then, the elasticity involved in 
Newton's calculation, we have an additional elasticity due to changes 
of temperature produced by the sound wave itself. When both are 
taken into account, the calculated and the observed velocities agree 
perfectly. 

'But here, without due caution, we may fall into the gravest error. 
In fact, in dealing with Nature, the mind must be on the alert to seize 
all her conditions ; otherwise we soon learn that our thoughts are not in 
accordance with her facts. It is to be particularly noted that the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 233 

augmentation of velocity due to the changes of temperature produced 
by the sonorous wave itself is totally different from the augmentation 
arising from the heating of the general mass of the air. The average 
temperature of the air is unchanged by the waves of sound. We can- 
not have a condensed pulse without having a rarefied one associated 
with it. But in the rarefaction, the temperature of the air is as much 
lowered as it is raised in the condensation. Supposing, then, the 
atmosphere parceled out into such condensations and rarefactions, 
with their respective temperatures, an extraneous sound passing through 
such an atmosphere would be as much retarded in the latter as accel- 
erated in the former, and no variation of the average velocity could 
Tesult from such a distribution of temperature.' 

"Here we have another instance of scientific honesty ; a pre- 
tence of saying something, when there is nothing to say. If the 
augmentation of velocity referred to is different from the aug- 
mentation that arises from heating the general mass of the air, 
how is it accomplished ? That the average temperature is un- 
changed, supposing it to be true, doesn't explain this. The 
proposition is that any condensation of air increases the heat 
of the air enough to add about one-sixth to the theoretical 
speed of sound. This resolves into this : first, that con- 
densation of air causes heat; second, that heat is caused in the 
condensations of hypothetical sound waves; third, that this 
heat in some way increases the speed of sound so as to make 
a theory agree with experiment, or by about 1 76 feet a 
second. It is well known that increase of temperature in the 
atmosphere causes increased speed in sound of about 1. 1 feet 
for every degree F. But it is said that the supposed increase 
referred to by Mr. Laplace does not come in this way. Then 
how does it come ? Is it necessary for Ellen to tell scientists 



234 ELLEN OR THE 

that anything which is not susceptible of intelligent explanation 
is not susceptible of intelligent use ? If it is necessary for her 
to say this, it is only because of the intolerable stupidity of 
those she says it to. 

"For always mind dominates. Mind creates mathematics, 
not mathematics mind. Things are as they are made by mind, 
and they are constructed upon mathematical principles 
because mind perceives that these are the proper principles for 
their construction. And nothing in all the immensity of this 
universe ever takes place contrary to reason. And, as Ellen 
thinks, nothing takes place in this material universe which 
the reason of man is not able to comprehend. But, however 
this may be, he has no right to make theory agree with 
experiment by a mathematical operation, unless he can show- 
some reason for such operation. This is a self-evident 
truth. And therefore if no reason can be given for the 
use of this formula, there is no warrant for its use, nor 
reason for Ellen to consider it. We might just as well add 176 
feet to Mr. Newton's result, and then say that theory agrees 
with experiment, as to perform any other mathematical opera- 
tion, for which there is no reason. 

"By this hypothesis of Laplace one-half of the air is con- 
stantly overheated, and one-half underheated, and this couldn't 
help being noticeable if it meant any perceptible amount of 
difference of temperature, even though the two halves should 
constantly interchange conditions. For the old Pine will 
remember that some of the hypothetical sound waves are quite 
long, that of the lower C 28 feet, or having 14 feet of condensa- 
tion and 14 of rarefaction. And this increase of heat, which, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2?,^ 

not in the ordinary way but in some inexplicable manner, is said 
to add 176 feet per second to the speed of sound, must take 
place with every sound, even the slightest. How much heat is 
engendered when a tornado piles the air up in condensations 
sufficient to snap like pipe-stems the strongest trees, or sweep 
whole cities from existence, the scientists haven't yet reported. 
It makes Ellen pretty sick to discuss seriously such intolerable 
nonsense." 

"Ellen is a good girl," I said, "and she may be certain she 
will never have to discuss it but once. But how does Mr. 
Tyndall attempt to use this explanation of Laplace?" 

" He thus continues," she said: 

' Whence, then, does the augmentation pointed out by Laplace arise ? 
I would ask vour best attention while I endeavor to make this knottv 



o a c 



d c' if a' 

Fig. 13. 



point clear to you. If air be compressed it becomes smaller in volume. ; 
if the pressure be diminished, the volume expands. The force which 
resists compression, and which produces expansion, is the elastic force 
of the air. Thus an external pressure squeezes the air particles 
together ; their own elastic force holds them asunder, and the particles 
are in equilibrium when these two forces are in equilibrium. Hence 
it is that the external pressure is a measure of the elastic force. Let 
the middle row of dots, fig. 13, represent a series of air particles in a 
state of quiescence between the points a and x. Then, because of th3 



2 $6 ELLEN OR THE 

elastic force exerted between the particles, if any one of them be moved 
from its position of rest, the motion will be transmitted through the 
entire series. Supposing the particle a to be driven by the prong of a 
tuning fork, or some other vibrating body, toward x, so as to be caused 
finally to occupy the position a in the lowest row of particles : at the 
instant the excursion of a commences, its motion begins to be trans- 
mitted to b. In the next following moments b transmits the motion to 
c, c to d, d to e. and so on. So that by the time a has reached the 
position a' f the motion will have been propagated to some point o' of 
the line of particles more or less distant from a. The entire series of 
particles between a' and o r is then in a state of condensation. The 
distance a o r , over which the motion has traveled during the excursion 
of a to a, will depend upon the elastic force exerted between the 
particles. Fix your attention on any two of the particles, say a and b. 
The elastic force between them may be figured as a spiral spring, and 
it is plain that the more flaccid this spring the more sluggish would be 
the communication of the motion from a to b ; while the stiffer the 
spring the more prompt would be the communication of the motion. 
What is true of a and b is true for every other pair of particles between 
a and o. Now the spring between every pair of these particles is sud- 
denly stiffened by the heat developed along the line of condensation, 
and hence the velocity of propagation is augmented by this heat. 
Reverting to our old experiment with the row of boys, it is as if, by the 
very act of pushing h'is neighbor, the muscular rigidity of each boy's 
arm was increased, thus enabling him to deliver his push more promptly 
than he would have done without this increase of rigidity. The con- 
densed portion of a sonorous wave is propagated in the manner here 
described, and it is plain that the velocity of propagation is augmented 
by the heat developed in the condensation? 

"In the above attempted explanation of Mr. Tyndall, these 
points are noticeable: first, that the middle row of dots is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 237 

supposed to represent a row of air particles in a state of 
quiescence. But practically there are no air particles in a state 
of quiescence, and under the kinetic theory of gases, which now 
is believed and taught by all or nearly all scientists who accept 
the undulatory theory of sound, it is assumed, as we have 
before seen, that the air particles are all moving, the direction 
and speed of their movements constantly varying, as they are 
influenced by contact with each other or with anything else, 
but that the average speed of each particle is about 1900 feet 
per second. Particles understood to be in such conditions as 
these, are now, to further the explanation of this theory, repre- 
sented by Mr. Tyndall to be at rest. Ellen does not think that 
further discussion of Mr. Tyndall's suppositions is necessary. 
For they are infinitely stupid or infinitely dishonest, and in 
either case not worth considering." 



238 ELLEN OR THE 



XV 



^r^UlY' I said, "the old Pine is anxious to understand 
*~* better about this celebrated formula of Laplace, and 
so hopes Ellen will continue with the explanation." 

"Very well," she said. "The old Pine sees that Mr. Tyn- 
dall's next sentence is that if any one of these particles be 
moved from its position of rest, the motion will be trans- 
mitted through the entire series. With particles that, accord- 
ing to the theory of these scientists, are always moving, and 
moving in all conceivable directions, it is not only somewhat 
difficult to see how they can be at rest, but it is also difficult to 
see how any particular motion can be transmitted through a 
series in any particular direction. It is equally difficult to per- 
ceive how these particles acting by the supposed laws that 
o-overn them under the kinetic theorv of oases can transmit 
motion with any uniform degree of speed. But all of this is 
included in the supposition of Mr. Tyndall. And he supposes 
the entire series of particles, themselves moving in all direc- 
tions, with an average speed of about 1900 feet per second, to 
be placed in a state of condensation or rarefaction, for an 
indefinite extent in all directions, from the center of disturbance 
by the prongs of a tuning fork moving at a rate not to exceed 
ten feet a second. 

"The old Pine and Ellen know, and everybody on earth 
who knows anything about it knows, that the fork cannot 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD TINE 24 1 

affect the air to any appreciable extent beyond a few inches, 
though this theory supposes it to form air waves extending a 
long distance. 

"Let us examine once more the nature of these hypothetical 
waves. Take the lower E of the tuning fork, whose condensa- 
tions by the theory are 14 feet and rarefactions of equal length. 
Possibly the tuning fork as it begins operations may move 
l^ of an inch. The air particles then in its way will be pushed 
that distance, which is the amplitude of the wave. These 
are supposed to push other particles an equal distance, and 
these again others, the final result being that precisely the 
amplitude of the wave is added to the normal air of the 
first condensation and constitutes the amount of added 
air, which, spread somewhat unequally over the fourteen 
feet of condensation, makes the condensation. This same 
amount, withdrawn from the next fourteen feet, is the cause 
of rarefaction. And this is all the cause there is of either 
condensation or rarefaction. One-quarter inch thickness of 
air at large estimate is distributed over fourteen feet. This 
means a condensation of about 1-672 and a rarefaction to the 
same extent. But the old Pine must not forget that this con- 
densed and rarefied condition would exist only directly in the 
path of the tuning fork, a surface of about 5 inches by J^ inch, 
under the supposition that it does not spread late rail}-, the fact 
and the requirements of the theory both being that it spreads 
in all directions. 

"But a surface of 5 inches by y 4 inch in width and a thick- 
ness varying from J^ inch at one end to nothing at the other 
means about 5-32 of a cubic inch of air to be distributed 



242 ELLEN OR THE 

somewhat unequally over that part of the spherical wave of 
which the first condensation consists of a space of about 5749 
cubic feet, making an average in round numbers of 1-63,579,- 
341 for this condensation. Witk each succeeding supposed 
condensation this would be very much less, and soon infinitely- 
less. 

"If made by an insect, a fiddle string, or the vocal chords,, 
such condensations or rarefactions would be of such infini- 
tesimal character that it would be absurd to undertake to 
estimate them. And yet the smallest of them are supposed to 
engender heat enough to in some way increase the speed of 
sound by 176 feet per second. And in order to make the 
proposition as absurd as possible, so as to meet the require- 
ments of science, it is assumed that it does this whether the 
condensation be small or great. 

"Mr. Tyndall continues: 

' Having grasped this, even partially, I will ask you to accompany 
me to a remote corner of the domain of physics, with the view, how- 
ever, of showing that remoteness does not imply discontinuity. Let a 
certain quantity of air at a temperature of o°, contained in a perfectly 
inexpansible vessel, have its temperature raised i°. Let the same 
quantity of air, placed in a vessel which permits the air to expand 
when it is heated — the pressure on the air being kept constant during 
its expansion- — also have its temperature raised i°. The quantities of 
heat employed in the two cases are different. The one quantity 
expresses what is called the specific heat of air at constant volume \ the 
other the specific heat of air at constant pressure.' 

"Thus far in this paragraph, though making pretence^ 
having no signification except to deceive, Mr. Tyndall has held 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 243 

his statements within the line of fact. But now, becoming 
scientific, he abandons facts and theorizes as follows: 

* It is an instance of the manner m which apparently unrelated natu- 
ral phenomena are bound together, that from the calculated and 
observed velocities of sound in air we can deduce the ratio of these two 
specific heats. Squaring Newton's theoretic velocity and the observed 
velocity, and dividing the greater square by the less, we obtain the 
ratio referred to. Calling the specific heat at constant volume Cv, and 
that at constant pressure Cp ; calling, moreover, Newton's calculated 
velocity V, and the observed velocity V, Laplace proved that — 

Cp _ V /2 
Cv ~~ V 2 

'Inserting the values of V and V in this equation, and making the 

calculation, we find — 

Cp 

= 1-42. 
Cv 

1 Thus, without knowing either the specific heat at constant volume or 
at constant pressure, Laplace found the ratio of the greater of them to 
the less to be 1*42.' 

''Not a single one of these assertions is true. They are at 
best but opinions of Mr. Tyndall. 
" Mr. Tyndall next says : 

' It is evident from the foregoing formulae that the calculated velocity 
of sound, multiplied by the square root of this ratio, gives the observed 
velocity.' 

"This last remark is as wise as to say that four times five 
are twenty. Mr. Tyndall now becomes honest, as follows : 

'But there is one assumption connected with the determination of 
this ratio, which must be here brought clearly forth. It is assumed 



244 ELLEN OR THE 

that the heat developed by compression .remains in the coftdensed 
portion of the wave, and applies itself there to augment the elasticity ; 
that no portion of it is lost by radiation. If air were a powerful 
radiator, this assumption could not stand. The heat developed iri the 
condensation could not then remain in the condensation. It would 
radiate all round, lodging itself for the most part in the chilled and 
rarefied portion of the wave, which would be gifted with a propor- 
tionate power of absorption. Hence the direct tendency of radiation 
would be to equalize the temperatures of the different parts of the wave, 
and thus to abolish the increase of velocity which called forth Laplace's 
correction.' 

" As this formula of Mr. Laplace is essential to the undula- 
tory theory of sound in its present condition, and is assumed to 
be correct and so used by those who hold the theory, it 
will also be desirable to see how it has been received by 
critical judges. Ellen finds that it has been considered inappli- 
cable by many of the ablest mathematicians, the opinions of 
several of whom she will quote to the old Pine. And first that 
of Professor Potter as published in the ' Philosophical Maga- 
zine,' vol. i ( 185 i ) : 

' In the last number of the Magazine, Mr. Rankine says he thinks I 
have misunderstood "the theory of Laplace and Poisson as to the 
propagation of sound in gases." I assure him I have never so mis- 
understood that theory as to think it to be a solution of the problem, but; 
have always considered it as begging the question. It does not look as 
if Poisson looked upon it at all in the light of a strict solution;, when he 
had first, in 1807, put Laplace's views into a tangible mathematical 
form ; for he says, " En admettant ce resultat, qu'on ne peut verifier 
par aucune experience directe, on fera disparaitre la difference que 
Newton a remarquee, le premier, ent-re la vitesse du son donnee par 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 24$ 

calcul, et celle qui resulte de l'observation." [In admitting this result^ 
which one is not able to verify by any direct experiment, one will make 
disappear the difference which Newton first observed between the 
velocity of sound given by mathematics and that which results from 
observation.] The amended calculations have, however, always been, 
far from closely approximate to the true velocity. 

' In showing the point of failure in the solutions, I shall refer to the 
simplest and most improved form, as given in Poisson's "Traite de 
Mecanique," edition 1833, vol. 2, page 695. He there -puts gm h equal to 
the pressure in the gas before disturbance, g being the force of gravity, 
m the density of mercury, and h the height of the barometric, column.. 
In the state of motion, and neglecting change of temperature, the 
pressure (/>) will be represented by 

gmh (i-M), 
where s represents the condensation positive or negative. He then 
says, " Nous supposerons done qu'on ait, en general, 

p=gmh (1 +->'-f<r) ; 
a- designant une quantite de meme signe que s, et qui en est une cer- 
taine fonction. A cause de la petitesse de s } on peut supposer cette 
quantite a proportioned a s, et faire 

J3 etant un coefficient positif et independant de j - ." [We will suppose^ 
then, that one has the general equation pz=.gm1i (1 -\-s-+-a), a repre- 
senting a quantity of the same sign as s and which represents some 
function of it. On account of the smallness of s, one may suppose this 
quantity a proportional to s and to make a—fts; (3 being a positive 
coefficient and independent of s.~] 

' Now the only condition which we have between a and s is, that 
they must be of the same sign ; so that if we put 

fr=f(s), 
.ind expand / (s) in a series ascending by integral powers of s, we must 



246 ELLEN OR THE 

hlave the index of the first term an odd integer ; and also since s is so 
small, we might neglect all terms but the first, and put 

o-=fis, or a=:f3s 3 , or <t = /3s 5 , etc. 

Now to take the first of these without any reason, more than the need 
to procure a solution of the problem under investigation, is a pure 
assumption ; and the whole process fails with any other power of s than 
the first. 

' We are thus thrown back on the original popular view of Laplace in 
seeking for an explanation. Sometimes it is so worded, as if the accel- 
eration of the vibrations of the particles of the medium by the heat and 
cold developed, proved necessarily an acceleration of the velocity of the 
propagation of the wave motion ; although at the same time it is one of 
the acknowledged facts of sound, that the velocity of propagation is 
independent of the velocity and frequency of the vibrations of the 
particles. 

' The velocity of propagation, however, varies with the elasticity of 
the medium for the same vibrating mass ; so that the only way in which 
Laplace's view need be taken, is that stated in my paper on Sound in 
the February number, by considering the heat or cold developed by the 
first pulse which is transmitted ; and this leads to consequences, as 
there shown, which are contrary to experience. 

'Mr. Rankine is, however, in error when he supposes an objection 
would also hold, since, because " every wave must consist of a com- 
pressed and a dilated part, the different parts of a wave would travel 
with different velocities," for this would only make the waves unsym- 
metrical in form.' 

"The 'Philosophical Magazine,' vol. 9, thus reports the con- 
tents of a paper read by the Rev. Samuel Earnshaw, of Shef- 
field, England, an eminent mathematician, at one of the 
meetings of the Philosophical Society : 



WHISPERINGS OF AN (OLD PINE 247 

I The author explained that the theory of sound must still be consid- 
ered imperfect, in consequence of resting on an approximate step in 
the mathematical part of the investigation. The results were exhibited 
in a simple numerical form, and made use of to explain several inter- 
esting phenomena, such as the wasting away and divergence of sound ; 
the peculiarity on which the sweetness of musical sounds depends on 
the rapidity and intensity of its formation, but not on the length of the 
sound wave. The more violent the genesis of a wave of sound, the 
more rapid should be its transmission. It had been one of his greatest 
discouragements in comparing theory with experiment, to find that 
experimenters on sound appeared to agree unanimously that all sounds, 
whether gentle or violent, travel with the same speed. On this point 
theory and experiment seemed to be discordant; experimenters had 
said that there was no difference in the speed of the human voice, and 
the report of a cannon, but the mathematical theory showed that the 
report of the cannon should travel more quickly than that of the 
human voice.' 

"The following able article by Mr. Earnshaw is -published in 
the 'Philosophical Magazine,' vol. 19: 

I I am perfectly aware the problem of the propagation of sound is 
considered to have been solved ; but notwithstanding this I venture to 
offer the following new solution to the notice of the philosophic world ; 
because it not only leads to a numerical result quite different from any 
before obtained from theory, and agreeing better with experiment, but 
likewise furnishes some new results of an unexpected character, and 
affords besides a glimpse into a department of nature which has hitherto 
remained hermetically sealed. Laplace's ingenious suggestion of a 
change of temperature due to a sound wave, brought "the result of 
theory so very near to that of experiment, that it has been thought 
unreasonable to require a closer agreement. But it is confessed that 



248 ELLEN OR THE 

the experiment by which the effect of a change of temperature is 
obtained is one that is remarkably difficult to manage, — one also in 
which errors of observation are greatly magnified in the result : this is 
shown to be so, from the great differences between the results of differ- 
ent experimentalists ; and I think I may say that the requisite value of 
the coefficient (commonly denoted by k) is much greater than Dalton^ 
experiments warrant, and than what would have been conjectured a 
priori to be its value. In looking also at the determinations of its 
value, and also of the value of the velocity of sound, I am a little sus- 
picious that modern experimentalists have suffered themselves to be 
biased by a desire to make experiment and theory agree. At any rate, 
if we compare experiments made since 181 6, when Laplace announced 
his theorem for the correction of Newton's result, with those previously 
made, it is impossible not to notice a very sudden and startling change ; 
and in the same spirit the value of k has been gradually growing in the 
hands of experimentalists till it is now large enough really to justify the 
opinion which has been expressed, that to Laplace is due the honor ot 
having completed the solution, which was begun in England, of the 
problem of the propagation of sound. And, to speak candidly, it must 
be confessed that Laplace's sagacious suggestion undoubtedly has the 
air of a vera causa, although it requires a larger development of heat 
by the sound wave than seems probable. But its great defect, if I may 
be allowed to consider it defective, is that the result it gives does not 
come up to the experiment. The theoretical velocity, after being 
amended by Laplace's suggestion, still falls short of the experimental 
velocity by 24 feet, if we take this last to be 1090 feet ; and by 76 feet, 
if we take the velocity of sound to be T142 feet as determined by Der- 
ham, Flamsteed, Halley, and the Florentine Academicians. It should 
be remembered, also, that theory might a priori be expected to give a 
result exceeding, rather than falling short of, experiment ; for theory- 
assumes the elasticity and fluidity of the atmosphere to be perfect, and 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 2^j 

we have reason to think both are really in a slight degree imperfect ; 
and this is not likely to accelerate, but rather to retard (it it at all 
affect) the propagation of sound waves. Upon the whole, after con- 
sidering the matter in as impartial a spirit as possible, candor obliges 
me to confess that Laplace's suggestion does not furnish a sufficient 
cause. I do not deny that it may be a cause ; but it is not the whole. 
There is a cause, still unrevealed, for the defect of the theoretical 
velocity. Euler considered that some part of the error of theory might 
be due to the incorrectness of assuming 

<£>■=' 

previously to integrating the differential equation ; and certainly, as 
this was an arbitrary step, it was reasonable to suppose it might in some 
way have the effect of making the theoretical result smaller than it 
would be were the equation integrated without making use of approx- 
imate steps. When, therefore, I succeeded in integrating it without 
approximate steps, I was disappointed to find that the theoretical 
velocity of a sound wave remained the same as before.' 

"Rev. James Challis, Professor of Astronomy at the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, England, as before mentioned, thus discusses 
the Laplace formula: 

' As my name has been mentioned in connection with the discussion 
now going on in your journal respecting the theoretical velocity of 
sound, and as I have already ventured to call in question the usual 
method of accounting for the excess of the observed velocity above the 
Newtonian value, I beg to be allowed to say a few words in explanation 
of my views on this subject. 

'The received method of accounting for the difference between the 
Newtonian and the observed value of the velocity of sound rests on 



2$0 ELLEN OR THE . • 

hypotheses. Now as it is contrary to sound philosophy to explain by 
an hypothesis what may be explained without an hypothesis, I am com- 
pelled by my reasoning to conclude that these hypotheses are inadmis- 
sible. To reconcile this, conclusion with what is observed respecting 
the effect of heat developed by sudden condensation of the air, I sug- 
gested that as experiment only showed that the effect is to raise the 
temperature when the developed heat acts on a very limited portion of 
air, we are not justified in supposing the same effect to take place when 
the air is uiilimited ; and that the developed heat, being in the first 
moment of its generation in the state of radiant heat, and being allowed 
to radiate indefinitely, does not sensibly change the temperature of the 
air at the position where it is generated. This is the supposition which 
Professor Stokes alludes to in the April number of the " Philosophical 
Magazine," page 306. 

'As. some advocates of Laplace's theory are of opinion that that 
theory assigns a vera causa for the excess of the velocity of sound 
above Newton's value, in refutation of that opinion I appeal to Laplace's 
exposition of his own vi,ews. It is clear that he thought it necessary to 
establish the theory upon certain laws of the action of caloric on the 
atoms of matter, of the atoms of caloric on each other, and of the 
relations of free and latent heat. But in the existing state of our 
knowledge of the theory of heat, these laws can only be regarded as 
hypothetical. The supporters, however, of Laplace's theory, instead of 
referring to these views, have substituted hypotheses of a different kind, 
leading to the same results. In the article by Professor Stokes already 
referred to (page 306), these hypotheses are introduced in the following 
terms : " That in the case of small sudden condensations (positive or 
negative) the increase of temperature is ultimately proportional, caeteris 
paribus, to the condensation, will not, it is presumed, be called in 
question." In this sentence there are involved three distinct and 
unsupported hypotheses : first, that there is increase of temperature in 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 251 

fluid of unlimited extent, experiment only proving that this is the case 
when the fluid is confined within narrow limits ; secondly, that this 
increment of temperature is in exact proportion to the increment of 
density ; thirdly, that the increments of temperature are simultaneous 
with the generation of the increments of heat by which they are pro- 
duced, whereas all analogy would lead us to expect that time must 
elapse between the effect and the generation of the cause producing the 
effect. For these reasons I assert that Laplace's theory, in whatever 
way it be viewed, rests on hypotheses. 

' It is unnecessary for me to make any remark on the investigation 
by which Professor Stokes determines the effect of the radiation of heat 
on the propagation of sound, because that investigation proceeds on 
the hypothesis of that very increase of temperature, the reality of which 
it has been the purport of the foregoing observations to call in question, 
and the object of it is to calculate the effect of radiation due to such 
increase of temperature.' 



252 ELLEN OR THE 



XVI. 

^I\/IANY other similar criticisms might be produced, but 
* " * Ellen will only add the following article, published 
in the * Quarterly Journal,' vol. 26, by Henry Meikle, in 
review of an article by Mr. Ivory upholding or accepting the 
Laplace theory. Mr. Ivory is one of that class of mathemati- 
cians like Mr. Stokes, Mr. Rankine, and numerous others, who 
have gained an easy notoriety by much ciphering in the line of 
authority. Mr. Meikle is one of the few with ability and 
honesty enough to work from an independent basis, accepting 
only what is correct and criticising what is wrong. 

'In the article on sound inserted in the " Edinburgh Philosophical 
Journal" for October, 1827, I had acquiesced in the theory of the late 
celebrated Marquis Laplace, so far as it appeared to go, and only sug- 
gested some small additions to it. But since writing that article, I 
have examined more closely the investigation of that eminent mathe- 
matician, given in the "Conn, des Terns " pour Fan 1825, and " Mecanique 
Celeste," torn, v., page 119, and am now convinced that it is in itself 
objectionable in several respects, independently of any thing which I 
formerly hinted : so that my proposed amendments on this theory are 
as nothing compared with the thorough reform it would require ; the 
result being neither deduced from correct principles, nor by means of 
an accurately managed calculus. The like objections attach to Mr. 
Ivory's view of it, given in the "Philosophical Magazine" for July, 1825, 
page 11. To this I shall principally direct my remarks at present, be- 
cause it is better known in this country, and is given in a more detached 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 255 

form than that of M. Laplace, which, though essentially the same, and, 
in fact, the groundwork of the other, is curiously interwoven with some 
untenable speculations regarding heat.* 

' Considerable obscurity pervades Mr. Ivory's investigation, especially 
in laying down the first principles, which are both inconsistent and 
defective. • Several of the most important circumstances are overlooked 
altogether ; but, as will be seen from extracts which soon follow, the 
leading idea by which the process is meant to be regulated is briefly 
this : A minute cylinder of air, whose length varies without either 
changing its mass or diameter, is supposed to be acted on by an accel- 
erating force, till it move over a small space z, and then abandoned to 
move uniform/y with the velocity so acquired along a straight line x.\ 

* In the "Conn, des Tems " for 1826, M. Poisson has treated the sub- 
ject in a more general way, with the view of embracing cases where 
the medium is not uniform. The length of his Memoir would render 
it tedious fully to discuss its merits ; but, so far as regards the ordinary 
case of sound traversing the horizon, it is not materially different 
from that about to be examined. 

t This notion seems, in the first instance, to be borrowed from 
that usually given in elementary books on mechanics ; where it is,, 
in effect, shown that if a series of equal and perfectly elastic bodies, 
such as cylinders, be placed contiguous, having their axes in a 
straight line ; and if an impulse be given to either extreme cylinder, it 
will communicate an equal impulse to the next, and this to the next, 
etc., till the whole series be run over. But to this is joined the assump- 
tion, that the velocity with which the impulse is propagated along the 
series is the same as the velocity of the first cylinder would have been, 
if alone, or projected by itself, — a coincidence for which I know no 
reason, nor can I believe it to be possible. But admitting it were true, 
since, as we shall presently see, the velocity of the projected cylinder 
must be proportional to the projecting force, how does this consist with 
the rate of propagation being likewise assumed to be ever the same in 
the same state of the medium ? Some, perhaps, could tell us that the 
series of cylinders propagate the impulse, as if there were so many 
isochronous pendulums; but where is the proof? and I may again 
ask how such a determinate velocity of sound can be aptly repre- 
sented by the precarious velocity with which the cylinder may be pro- 
jected? For, at all events, the calculus is conducted with reference to 



2 $6 ELLEN OR THE 

'This latter motion is intended to represent that of sound, and its 
velocity is assumed, without either proof, or probability, to be always 
the same, and, consequently, without either decrease or end, in air of 
the like density and pressure. It is further supposed, that the cylinder 
always moves over a space equal to its own length during the constant 
fluxion of time ^r,.and that it does so whether in passing over z or x. 

e Now without enlarging on the faint enough resemblance between 
this leading idea and the propagation of sound, it may be observed, 
before entering on further particulars, that either the space z, no matter 
how small, must be always of the same magnitude, and therefore the 
intensity or loudness of sound always the same in air of the like condi- 
tion, which is contrary to universal observation ; or else, the accelerat- 
ing force must be everywhere inversely proportional to the space z. 
Without some condition of this nature, the final velocity with which the 
cylinder is projected, or the velocity of sound, cannot, as our author 
assumes, be always the same in the same medium. For, to attain the 
same final velocity, the circumstances must be similar to those of a 
weight descending an inclined plane of a given height ; where, abstract- 
ing from friction or other resistance, the accelerating force is inversely 
as the plane's length. But, in the case before us, the law of the force 
accelerating the cylinder must be of a very opposite description ; for, 
as we shall afterwards see, in order that the velocity of sound, as 
deduced by this sort of investigation, may be independent of the 
intensity, or of the degree of condensation, the elasticity of the air 
would require to be either independent of, or to vary inversely as, the 
density, which are alike absurd ; but here the elasticity is supposed to 
vary directly as the 4$ power of the density. 



a projected cylinder. But supposing the investigation were to relate 
only to " the vibrations of a line of air," it would not be less objection- 
able ; as, for instance, what could we make of the curious absurdity, to 
be shortly noticed, of the small cylinders of air being compressed till 
infinitely dense, at the turn of each vibration ? 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 257 

'That the above are not the only serious charges which may be 
brought against Mr. Ivory's investigation, will appear from the following 
extracts; to which I shall subjoin some remarks, for the purpose of 
pointing out a few more of the tacit assumptions and undefined steps, 
which are not unfrequent, and for setting their merits and mutual rela- 
tions, which are sometimes curious, in a proper point of view : 

'"Conceive a slender horizontal tube of an indefinite length, con- 
taining air in a state of equilibrium ; and let x f reckoned from a fixed 
point in the axis of the tube, be the distance of a small cylinder of air 
within the tube, the thickness (length) of which is equal to dx. Sup- 
pose now that the cylinder is pushed forward by some force to the dis- 
tance x-\-z from the fixed point, and that it occupies the length 
dx-\-dz in the axis.* 

* It is not, however, this movement of the cylinder over the 
space z that is considered in the sequel of the investigation ; but 
its retracing of it occasioned by the natural tendency of the air to 
regain its equilibrium, and which accelerates the cylinder back over the 
space z towards the assumed point from which the distance x+z was 
reckoned. A concussion or tremor is thus produced in the air, and 
propagated from atom to atom along the line x; and it is conceived 
that this tremor or sound moves uniformly along x with the velocity, 
whatever that be, which the cylinder has acquired during its accelera- 
tion over the line z. This supposed uniform velocity of the cylinder 
projected along x is further conceived to be the same with the velocity 
it happens to have, whenever its density equals the mean actual density 
of the medium. If so, how does this consist with the well known fact, 
that the series of aerial vibrations conducting sound through the atmos- 
phere always get feebler and feebler as they become more distant from 
the sonorous body, and, consequently, the velocities of the atoms 
slower and slower at those similar points of their vibrations in which 
the densities of the cylinders become equal to the mean density of the 
medium ? But ample reason may be given for the fundamental fact 
just stated, though Mr. Ivory has entirely overlooked both it and the 
reason. For admitting that the motion of the cylinder were, as he 
assumes, uniform in a tube, yet in the free air sound is sent off, as from 
a radiant point, in every open direction not opposed to the wind. 
Nay, sound reaches many a place by a curvilinear route, even without 
being reflected. It is therefore plain, that the area of each wave or 



258 ELLEN OR THE 

'"It is to be observed that dx is invariably of the same magnitude^ 
whatever be the position of the small cylinder of air, and that dz alone 
varies in different places of the tube, and at different times. It follows, 
therefore, that x is independent on the time /, and z is a function of 
x and /. It is to be observed too, that the air is supposed to undergo 
very small condensations and rarefactions in proportion to its original 
bulk in the state of equilibrium ; that is, dz must be considered as very 
small when compared to dx* Let p denote the density of the air in 



sphericai shell of air, to which the tremor is communicated in succession, 
will increase as fast, at least, as the square of its radius, or of its dis- 
tance from the radiant point. In other words, the number of atoms or 
the mass to be successively set in motion will, supposing the medium 
uniform, increase as fast, at least, as the square of its distance from the 
sonorous body. This is a very different thing from saying off hand, 
that " the cylinder in motion has always the same mass." Hence, as 
might easily be shown from known principles, the motion of sound com- 
puted on projectile principles, instead of being uniform, ought to 
decrease as fast, at least, as the reciprocal of the distance from its source 
decreases. 

Sir Isaac Newton's view of the subject is incomparably more con- 
sistent than the one before us. He supposed all the vibrations in the 
same uniform medium to be isochronous, or performed in equal times, 
however different their lengths, and, consequently, however different 
the velocities of the atoms at like points of their vibrations. Indeed, it 
is easy to see that there is no way in which the velocity of sound could 
be uniform, but by the vibrations, however different in length, being 
isochronous. Newton, and his earlier followers, were well aware of this 
circumstance ; but vibrations of different lengths are quite at variance 
with, and cannot enter as an element into, the refined mode of viewing 
sound under the emblem of a projected cylinder, going on for ever, as 
the theory implies, without either decrease of velocity or of loudness. 
There is, however, no reason to think that every conceivable or possible 
law of elasticity in air would give isochronous vibrations ; nor am I 
aware that such has been proved, from legitimate theoretical principles, 
to hold of even one particular law, far less of that which belongs to the 
atmosphere. — H. M. 

* It would be difficult to reconcile almost any of these remarks 
either with each other, or with the very opposite principles acted 
on in the rest of this research. As, for instance, by strictly fol- 
lowing up the leading principles of the investigation, it appears that dz 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 259 

equilibria, and p the variable density of the agitated cylinder ; then, 
the masses of the two cylinders being the same, their densities will be 
reciprocally as the volumes : therefore 

p _ dx dx 

J~dx-\-dz~ 1 ~J 7 z i 

dz 
the powers of the small fraction — being rejected.* This equation, it 

maybe remarked, implies the continuity of the fluid,! since the cylinder 
in motion has always the same mass. Let P' denote the elastic force 



instead of being incomparably smaller than dx, must occasionally equal 
it ; and that the condensation, in place of being trifling, must be infi- 
nite. For, here the length of the cylinder is dx-\-dz, which binomial is 
likewise used as the fluxion of z; no matter how curious and undefined 
the notation, which Laplace, however, avoids. But when the cylinder 
reaches its utmost distance from the assumed point from which x-\- z is 
reckoned, and is about to return toward that point, its velocity = 0; 
and, therefore, the fluxion of the space = dx-\-dz = o, and dx=—dz„ 
Or, more properly, d x — dz=.o, and dx=idz. For in this case, the 
fluxion of the space, or the length of the cylinder, is obviously the dif- 
ference and not the sum of dx and dz, because dx is constaat. 
Hence, also, at the turn of the motion, the length of the cylinder is 
nothing, or its density is infinite; a consequence, though absurd, yet 
inseparable from the tacit hypothesis which makes the cylinder always 
move over a space equal to its own length, during the constant fluxion 
of time dr. It is therefore certain, that the length of the cylinder can- 
not consistently represent its velocity, or coincide with the fluxion of 
the space, as our author so conveniently assumes it to do, without offer- 
ing the least reason for such illegitimate procedure. It is almost 
needless to add that the same assumption involves various other incon- 
sistencies, or to remark that the shattering of windows and crazy build- 
ings, the shaking of houses at considerable distances, the occasional 
deafening of persons, with many similar effects, could neither be pro- 
duced by small vibrations, nor slight condensations ; though infinite 
ones would be unnecessary. — H. M. 

* Since, as we have seen, dz sometimes equals dx, this frac- 
tion is occasionally considerable, or even equal to unit; and, there- 
fore, its powers cannot warrantably be rejected, either here, or again 
a little after in taking the fluxions. — H. M. 

y True, a continuity, but only in one direction through the tube ; 
whereas, in open air, the continuity is in all directions. — H. M. 



260 ELLEN OR THE 

of the air in equilibrio, and P the like force of the agitated cylinder ; 
then, if we adopt the law of Boyle and Mariotte, we shall have 

l—p ■ 
p'-p- ■ 

and this equation would lead us to the result obtained by Newton.* 

But if, according to the observation of Laplace, we reason more 

agreeably to what actually takes place in nature, and suppose that the 

elastic force of the agitated cylinder is exerted while it retains the whole 

of its absolute heat, the preceding formulae (D)j will furnish this 

equation, 

P __/ P \f__/ f d z \ l__ T 4 dx 
1 p ax a z 



* We shall afterwards see this to be a mistake. — H. M. 

| The formulae referred to make the cube of the pressure 
vary as the fourth power of the density, which I consider to be the 
true law, though Mr. Ivory has since renounced it as incorrect, without 
giving any admissible reason ; but when he adopted this ratio, in the 
place from which he now quotes it, he did so for an erro?ieous reason, 
as I have hinted in the ' Edin. Phil. Jour.' for January, 1827. However, 
I do not think such a ratio applicable to the investigation of the 
velocity of sound, especially in the suppositious case of the tube before 
us. For though, in favorable circumstances, sound be propagated in 
every open direction from the sonorous body, yet it does not appear 
that the air acts there exactly in its fluid character. Because sound 
which first passes through the tube, and then into the open air, does 
not proceed from the mouth of the tube, as from a sonorous body, in 
every direction, which it would do if the particles acted on each other 
with equal force in every direction. On the contrary, sound, as is 
well known, diverges but in a small degree after quitting a long tube 
which merely conducts it ; and I rather doubt if it would diverge at all, 
were it not for the friction or resistance which the vibrating particles 
suffer from their contact with air which is not in the direction of the 
tube. From this we should be led to infer, that the particles of air 
conveying sound through a narrow tube, especially the ideal one free 
from friction, only vibrate in the direction of the axis. If so, the elas- 
ticity of air conducting sound through the tube should not be estimated 
according to the above law, but more nearly as in the inverse ratio of 
the squares of the variable longitudinal dimensions ; because, as I have 
shown on a former occasion, the particles of air repel each other with 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 261 

'"Take the fluxions making x only variable* and divide by the 

equal quantities p {dx-\-dz) and p dx ; then 

dY = _ 4 V ddz 
p ( dx + dz :! " p ' dx' 2 ' 

' " Now, P is the elastic force of the air in the tube at the distance 
x-\-z from the assumed point in the axis, and P-f^/P is the like force 
of the air at the distance x + z-\-dx + dz; wherefore dV is the effective 
force urging the intervening cylinder towards the assumed point : and 
as the mass moved is equal to p(dx +dz), the quotient is the accelera- 
tion of each particle, otherwise expressed by — — — ;f wherefore 

d T 

,/ T 2 — 3—y • j x r 



forces inversely as the squares of their distances. But we have already 
seen that the actual case of the atmosphere is totally different from 
that of the tube.— H. M. 

* This is a curious injunction, more likely to embarrass and 
mislead the reader than anything else ; for the equation in hand does 
not involve x at all ; and, besides, Mr. Ivory, in the face of this strict 
precept, makes both P and dz variable. — H. M. 

t Viz. one of the usual differential expressions for an accel- 
erating force. The second fluxion of the space being ddz, and the 
undefined symbol dr denoting the constant fluxion of the time. It is 
from this step that it becomes more particularly obvious that the length 
of the cylinder is a measure of its velocity, being always equal to the 
minute space described during the constant moment of time dr. Not 
the shadow of a reason is either given or supposed necessary to assign 
why the length of the cylinder should not rather have had some other 
relation to its velocity than that just mentioned, which we have already- 
seen to be impossible. But the gratuitous assumptions in this investi- 
gation are so numerous and important that they would have rendered it 
null and void as a mathematical production, although no inconsistency 
had presented itself. For were such assumptions to be tolerated in 
mathematics, there is no problem, however difficult, but they could 
solve with the utmost facility. A curious instance of their irresistible 
powers is noticed in the 'Philosophical Magazine' for December. 1822, 
where I have shown that the demonstration which Mr. Ivory supposed 
he had given of Euclid's Twelfth Axiom, in the number for March pre- 
ceding, owes all its virtue to an assumption fully equivalent to the axiom 
itself, which was the very point to be proved ! — H. M. 



262 ELLEN OR THE 

'Were every thing correct about this equation and the mode by 

which Mr. Ivory has obtained it, the velocity would obviously, as he in 

effect states it, be 

dx__ ,' 4 P' 

dr~\\ p» 

and since both dx and dr are constant, the velocity would be uniform, 
and always the same in air of the same density and pressure. But 
another notable error and inconsistency have here evaded notice, by 
the manoeuvre of twice rejecting the higher powers of ds, seemingly 
for the purpose of rendering the calculus manageable, though, as we 
shall presently see, there was no call or necessity for it on that account. 
Whether M. Laplace or Mr. Ivory were aware of this circumstance, I 
could not pretend to say ; but one thing is certain, that further defects 
of the investigation become sufficiently apparent, when none of these 
powers have been discarded. For in this way we have 

x , CI X \-f> 

~W—^dx+dz ] ' 
'Take the fluxions, making dx and P' constant, which gives 

^ P — 4 ( dx \l„ ddz — 4/ 9 \iyc' ddi 
P'~~ ^dx+dz' X ~dx~— 3 V *~dx' 

Multiply by P' and divide by p(dx-\-ds)=p' dx, as before, and we 

have 

dP _ 4 P' p .-I dds__ ddz 
p(dx+dz)~ 3 P { P r) X dx° : ~ dr 2 ' 

' Hence the velocity of sound should be 

$=(^)*xJ(t?|) 

dr p \ 3/0 

which, though a very different expression from the former, is uniform 
or independent of the degree of condensation, because dx and dr are 
constant ; and yet it is affected by the intensity or degree of condensa- 
tion, because p is so affected. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE ^ r >5 

' We have thus, even when working more correctly, obtained a 
result which is evidently contradictor}' or absurd. Nor can it be 
admitted as an excuse, to say, that p and p are nearly equal ; for we 
have already seen that the principles acted on in this investigation 
imply that p may exceed p in any proportion. 

' By using unit for the index of - — r—r-* we do not, when nothing 

is omitted, obtain Newton's result, as Mr. Ivory alleges, but the very 
different expression 

y\v 

which is just as absurd as the other. Indeed, when in this mode of 
investigation, none of the powers of dz have been rejected, the velocity 
can never come out uniform or independent of the degree of condensa- 
tion, and be at the same time real or possible. For, taking the only 
two supposable cases, — were the index =0, neither the elasticity of 
air, nor sound, which depends on it, could exist ; and were the index 
— — 1, the elasticity would vary inversely as the density, which is a 
perfect contradiction, not to mention that the velocity of sound would 
come out an impossible quantity. 

1 Any further evidence would be superfluous to show that this sort 
of investigation is not only inefficient, but full of error and incongruity, 
view it which way we will ; and that it will be alike unfortunate for 
this theory whether the motion of sound ultimately turn out, from 
experiment, to be uniform or retarded ; for, independently of that, the 
result is anything but a fair logical deduction from correct data. I 
have as yet confined my remarks to Mr. Ivory's investigation in the 
" Philosophical Magazine " for July, 1825 . His other solution grafted on 
it, and given in that journal for April, 1S27, is one way or other liable 
to all the above mentioned objections.' 

"This article of Mr. Meikle is one of the very few that Ellen 
has ever seen, written bv a mathematician, that doesn't run to 



264 ELLEN OR THE 

absurdities. That is, it is one of the few especially able articles 
that she has ever seen written by a mathematician. Mr. Meikle 
is too able a man to be wrecked by a little knowledge of math- 
ematics. He is eminent as a mathematician, but still more so 
as a man. He handles the whole subject without gloves and 
shows that this undulatory theory of sound is entirely untenable,, 
preposterous, and impossible. The wonder is that after such a 
thorough and unanswerable exposure the theory was not aban- 
doned, although of course the vested interests in text books 
and of instructors stood tremendously in the way of such aban- 
donment. Still, always, sooner or later the truth will prevail. 

" It seems, too, from a second article by Mr. Meikle, pub- 
lished in the same volume of the 'Quarterly Journal,' that 
Professor Leslie had previously made similar criticisms of this 
theory. Thus Mr. Meikle, in this second article, says: 

'In the "Philosophical Magazine" and "Annals" for November last, 
Mr. Ivory has brought forward what he calls an "Answer" to my article,, 
in No. VII. of the "Journal of Science," on his doctrines about sound 
and heat. A prominent, and perhaps unavoidable, feature of Mr. Ivory's 
answer, which cannot fail to strike the reader's attention, is the total 
absence of everything bearing immediately on the points in dispute. 
The whole affair is got conveniently over, by a series of excuses more 
or less plausible : while every one of my criticisms remains unanswered 
in full force. 

' Mr. Ivory's first insinuation is, that my strictures are little else than 
taken from Professor Leslie's article "Acoustics." He takes good care 
to offer no evidence of this. I have only to regret, that, so far from it< 
having been the fact, I had entirely forgotten that that valuable article 
contained any objection to the theory of sound. I now see that had I 
looked into it in time, I might have materially improved my paper. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FINE 26/ 

I presume, however, that by endeavoring to sift the analytical investi- 
gation to the bottom, I have distinctly pointed out several striking 
inconsistencies, impossibilities, and unwarrantable assumptions, not 
before noticed by any one ; and therefore, " the subject is not left." as 
Mr. Ivory could wish, '"'just where I found it." 

1 Mr. Ivory next remarks on my article that " whatever purposes such 
discussions may serve, one is at a loss to find out how they can benefit 
science." A very natural remark, to be sure, while the tide of discus- 
sion ran against Mr. Ivory. He might just as well say, he was at a loss 
to see how the destruction of weeds, and other useless or noxious herbs, 
can benefit the produce of a garden. The removal of spurious produc- 
tions, especially those wearing the garb of mathematical investigation, 
being as necessary and beneficial to the progress of science as the 
destruction of weeds in the other case. I would rather ask — what 
benefit can result to science from an "Answer," which leaves unan- 
swered everything it professed to answer? In particular, it "leaves the 
analytical theory of sound," which I had impugned, " to stand on its 
own merits," after it had not a foot left to stand upon.' 

" Ellen has been unable to obtain the article by Professor 
Leslie referred to, but she will call especial attention to some 
of the unanswerable objections to the theory pointed out by 
Mr.. Meikle, showing that mathematically as well as in fact it 
has no existence : 

''First. The amplitude of the particle propagating sound 
must be always of the same magnitude, or else the accel- 
erating force of this particle must be everywhere inversely 
proportional to the space passed over by the particle. The 
first could not be true, as it would necessitate that the intensity 
of sound be always the same in air of like condition. And the 
last is distinctly opposed to a fundamental principle upon 



268 ELLEN OR THE 

which the theory is based, that the accelerating force must be 
proportional to the space passed over by the particle. A prin- 
ciple which harmonizes with Boyle's law, that 'the temperature 
remaining the same, the volume of a given quantity of gas is 
inversely as the pressure which it bears.' There is no answer 
to this, and it is fatal to the theory. 

" Second. In the third note Mr. Meikle points out, what has 
since been demonstrated by Regnault, and what is in its nature 
self-evident, that the velocity of the particles, and distance 
passed over by them, in a pulse of air must constantly 
decrease. 

"Third. By preserving so-called infinitesimals, that is by an 
accurate solution, absurd results are reached, which of itself is 
a fatal objection. Other points are referred to and the utterly- 
untenable character of the whole theory pointed out and 
demonstrated. So that the existence of these undulatory 
theories to-day is absolutely without warrant or excuse, and 
can only be explained by the fact that large property interests 
are at stake in the sale of text books, and in the profession of 
teaching. 

" It can be demonstrated in an open tube, as Ellen has said, 
that when a piston pushes the particles of air, not only these 
particles move the distance of the piston, as they must, but 
neglecting viscosity and friction, all particles in the tube for a 
long distance do the same, and a number of particles, equal to 
those displaced by the piston, will go out from the other end. 
If, as scientists assert, unconfined air acts as confined air, all 
the particles influenced by the compression must move as fat- 
as those pushed by the tuning fork. The whole conceit of 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 269 

developing heat is arrant nonsense ; but if it were true, the 
heat would be developed according to the force of the com- 
pression, — hence loud sounds would go much faster than low 
ones, and, indeed, every sound on this account would have a 
different speed. And thus again the theory as now announced, 
with the Laplace modification, is demonstrated to be utter 
nonsense. 



270 ELLEN OR THE 



XVII. 

FALLEN will now return to the review of Mr. Tyndall's 
*— ' book. He further says: 

'We have already learned that what is loudness in our sensations is 
outside of us nothing more than width of swing, or ajnplitude, of the 
vibrating air particles. Every other real sonorous impression of which 
we are conscious has its correlative without, as a mere form or state of 
the atmosphere. Were our organs sharp enough to see the motions 
of the air through which an agreeable voice is passing, we might see 
stamped upon that air the conditions of motion on which the sweetness 
of the voice depends. In ordinary conversation, also, the physical 
precedes and arouses the psychical ; the spoken language, which is to 
give us pleasure or pain, which is to rouse us to anger or soothe us to 
peace, existing for a time, between us and the speaker, as a purely 
mechanical condition of the intervening air.' 

" Perhaps no passage in the book suggests the absurdities 
of the theory more vividly than this. Mr. Tyndall at last 
awakes to the perception that every impression of which 
we are conscious has its correlative without, and this 
correlative, in the case of sound, he would assume to be 
built of air, and further assumes that this is accomplished 
by a very slight mechanical force, and transferred repeat- 
edly to an exactly similar number of air particles in exactly 
similar arrangement; and this process repeated in all direc- 
tions as long as the sound exists, an operation that under 
no conceivable circumstances would be possible, but that, if 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 27 1 

possible, would necessitate all the air, within the distance that 
a sound is heard, to be occupied exclusively in the propagation 
of that sound for a certain definite time. The old Pine and 
Ellen would have to stop breathing if they wished to hear 
any perfect sounds. For breathing would disturb the air parti- 
cles about the head and ears, and thus further damage and 
destroy what remained of every supposed correlative. And 
certainly Ellen and the old Pine wouldn't want to be uncivil to 
the pretty birds that sing to them, or the brooks whjch make 
such beautiful melody. And the idea of such a correlative as 
this, which is simply the most unmitigated nonsense,, is called 
science. As well might scientists state that utensils are made 
of water, cities built of air, and ropes formed of sand, thrown 
together by the wind. For the one thing is as sensible and 
possible as the other. The principle of a sufficient cause 
upon which science is founded, though constantly over- 
looked by scientists, belongs to all nature. Nothing takes 
place without it. As Ellen has said before, insufficient causes 
will not answer; they must be sufficient. Nor is it possible 
that anything is a cause which is opposed to the laws of nature. 
Then such a correlative as this, ragged, incomplete, and 
impossible, which scientists offer for sound, can only exist in 
their imagination, or want of imagination. Nature has pro- 
vided something very different and complete, by which the 
dulcet tones of her harmonies, and all her beautiful sym- 
phonies, are made possible to our understandings. Ellen is 
awfully glad that nature fixed up things before the scientists got 
along. It would have been a sorry world that we should have 
had if she hadn't. 



2J2 ELLEN OR THE 

"Then it is certain that whatever represents this thing sound 
to the senses, that is, whatever sound is, must be fashioned of such 
material and by such forces as are adequate to make it, and in 
such manner that its consistency may be maintained throughout 
its existence. And it is also certain, as Ellen has said before, 
that the correlative of sound must be a correlative in the fullest 
sense, just as all things are which are correlatives of sensations. 
The correlative, always, of anything, includes and must include 
everything perceived by the senses. That of the tree must 
include trunk, bark, and flower — each leaf and every twig, 
and it does include all these and many things besides that 
Ellen cannot enumerate. For every leaf reflected in the mind 
dwells on the tree. And these leaves have notched shores, and 
are divided into mountain ranges and valleys. All are formed 
with the most exquisite care, and composed of the choicest 
materials. There is no fraud in them, nor in any part of the 
tree. And so with a bush,, or with a flower. The workmanship 
in each is of the finest, and the material in each of the 
choicest. And it is in this way that nature builds up all 
things. She neglects nothing. 

' Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not, neither 
do they spin. And yet I say unto you, that even Solomon in all his 
glory was not arrayed like one of these.' 

"But if the correlative of all things that we see is thus 
made so perfectly, we know that the correlative of those things 
which we hear is made with equal care, both in material and in 
form. And every sound has its own consistency of form and 
character, and always the same sound is composed in the same 
way. The old Pine can't see the sound, can he?" 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 273 

"No," I said, "but he knows that it includes all, even to the 
minutest feature, that intelligence perceives in it, or gathers 
from it." 

"Sensible old Tree," she said. "How does any one sup- 
pose that, even if they existed, such conformations as those 
of this theory could be conveyed to the soul? Only by 
vision might such a feat be attempted, and they are not 
visible. For if they could be made, the larger part of 
them could not by any possibility reach the ear intact, 
or in any such shape as to suggest their supposed shape 
when formed. For by other sounds and other constantly 
occurring disturbances in the air, their consistency would 
and must be entirely destroyed. The man who, with arms 
spread, requested the crowd to get out of his way because 
he had the measure of a door between his hands, was a 
marvel of wisdom to the scientist who believes that air 
waves carry or can carry the measure of sounds. Thus in 
talking, often those that we speak to are many rods from 
us, with numerous noises taking place, as the rustling of 
leaves, the murmuring of streams, the singing of birds, 
the barking of a dog, lowing of cows or neighing of 
a horse, each one of which, by this theory, must occupy 
every particle of air and keep it in constant and different 
vibration, throughout the whole continuation of its sound; 
and always at the same time, if out of doors, there is 
more or less disturbance of the air by winds, which are 
simply particles of air moving, because of gravity and 
elastic force, from the more dense to the less dense. 
The old Pine will see how absolutely impossible it would 



274 ELLEN OR THE 

be for the measure of the door to be maintained. And 
yet, under all such circumstances, the voices of those talking 
to us, are brought to our understanding in such manner, that 
we recognize not only the words, but pitch, tone, intonation, 
all the belongings of speech, which add so much to its beauty 
and force. And not only brought to us, but to all others, 
within hearing. That is, according to this theory, every one 
of the millions of waves, more or less, or the infinite millions of 
parts of waves which are supposed to reach some ear, are 
kept in exactly the same condition, so as to convey exactly the 
same sensation to perhaps a million hearers. 

" Concerning this correlative without, Professor Challis 
remarks : 

' The possibility of hearing distinctly words spoken at a distance, 
depends on the faithfulness with which the air transmits the impressions 
made on it by the organ of voice. As the difference between the 
sound of one letter and that of another corresponds to a difference in 
the form of the curve representing the succession and magnitude of the 
condensations impressed, it is necessary that the form should remain 
unchanged by distance of transmission in order that words heard at 
different distances may be the same sounds. The law of transmission 
expressed by the formula a -f- v, which is the basis of Mr. Airy's specu- 
lations, is opposed to this constancy of form. M. Biot, however, has 
recorded an experiment made at Paris, according to which, words 
pronounced at one end of a cylindrical tube 3120 feet in length were 
perfectly distinct at the other end. ' 

" The old Pine can be perfectly certain that for such wonder- 
ful results God ordered no impossible and insufficient method, 
but instead created a system abundantly able to perform all 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 275 

these marvelous things, and which in its workings would inter- 
fere with nothing else ordered by Him. 
" Mr. Tyndall continues : 

1 Having determined the rapidity of vibration, the length of the 
corresponding sonorous wave is found with the utmost . facility. 
Imagine a tuning fork vibrating in free air. At the end of a second 
from the time it commenced its vibrations the foremost wave would 
have reached a distance of 1,090 feet; in air of the freezing tempera- 
ture of about 1 5 C, it would reach a distance of 1,120 in a second. 
In this distance, therefore, are embraced 384 sonorous waves. Divid- 
ing 1,120 by 384, we find the length of each wave to be nearly three 
feet. Determining in this way the rates of vibration of the four tuning 
forks now before you, we find them to be 256, 320, 384, and 512; 
these numbers corresponding to wave lengths of four feet four inches, 
two feet eleven inches, and two feet two inches, respectively. The 
waves generated by a man's voice in common conversation are from 
eight to twelve feet, those of a woman's voice are from two to four feet 
in length. Hence a woman's ordinary pitch in the lower sounds of 
conversation is more than an octave above a man's ; in the higher 
sounds it is two octaves. 

1 And here it is important to note that by the term vibrations are 
meant complete ones ; and by the term sonorous wave are meant a con- 
densation and its associated rarefaction. By a vibration an excursion 
to and fro of the vibrating body is to be understood. Every wave gen- 
erated by such a vibration bends the tympanic membrane once in and 
once out. 

' During the time required by each of those sonorous waves to pass 
entirely over a particle of air, that particle accomplishes one complete 
vibration. It is at one moment pushed forward into the condensation, 
while at the next moment it is urged back into the rarefaction. The 
time .required by the particle to execute a complete oscillation is, 



276 ELLEN OR THE 

therefore, that required by the sonorous wave to move through a dis- 
tance equal to its own length. Supposing the length of the wave to be 
eight feet, and the velocity of sound in air of our present temperature 
to be i,i 20 feet a second, the wave in question will pass over its own 
length of air in 1 -140th of a second : this is the time required by every 
air particle that it passes to complete an oscillation.' 

" This, too, is as ineffable a lot of nonsense as it would 
be possible to conceive. There are here two known 
facts, and only two ; namely, that the C fork vibrates 
256 times per second and that sound goes 1090 feet per 
second. From these it is possible to deduce the single addi- 
tional fact that in -^is of a second sound will go about four 
feet four inches, supposing it to proceed at uniform rate, as it 
is generally supposed to do. This is the limit of knowledge. 
Like a true scientist, Mr. Tyndall immediately crosses it and 
states a number of other things to be true about which he has 
no knowledge whatever. Ellen has already called attention to 
the difficulty of a wave passing over a particle of air supposed 
to be a component part of itself. The statement that the time 
required for a particle to execute a complete oscillation is that 
required by the sonorous wave to move through a distance 
equal to its own length, is one of the fundamental conditions of 
this theory, but is without proof ; and taken in connection with 
other parts of the hypothesis, is impossible. For one 
part of the theory requires that the waves should all be 
of equal length, and claims, as Mr. Tyndall does, that they 
are. But another part of the same theory makes it neces- 
sary that these waves should vary in length, constantly dimin- 
ishing. Thus the oscillation, or half oscillation, of the particle 




May Among the Mountains 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 279 

is known as the amplitude of the vibration. But the intensity 
of sound by the theory is proportional to the square of this 
amplitude. This intensity also varies inversely as the square 
of the distance from the Sounding body; therefore the ampli- 
tude of oscillation must vary inversely as the distance from the 
source of sound, and the velocity of sound must vary through- 
out its course. ■ For as the particles all vibrate in equal times 
and move through a constantly decreasing amplitude, their ve- 
locity will decrease as the distance from the sounding body in- 
creases. But the velocity of sound depends upon the velocity 
of the particles, and therefore must decrease constantly as the 
distance from the sounding body increases." 

"But would not the scientists claim," I asked, "that this 
amplitude is an infinitesimal which can be neglected?" 

"Ellen knows not what they might claim," she replied ; "but 
it is not an infinitesimal which under any circumstances can be 
neglected. For the velocity of sound is proportional to the 
velocity of the particles, and therefore when their velocity has 
decreased one-half, the velocity of sound by this theory must 
have decreased one-half. It follows, too, that if there was any 
such system of waves, these waves would all be of different 
length, each one being shorter than the one preceding. 

"This is under the supposition that the medium is of uni- 
form density. But supposing that the density diminishes, it 
is claimed that there is no variation in the velocity of 
propagation, or in the intensity of the sound, over what it 
would be if the medium was uniform. But by the theory 
the intensity depends upon the vis viv<a, which equals half 
the mass times the square of the velocity. Then, because 



2 SO ELLEN OR THE 

of the fact that if the product of two factors is constant 
and one of the factors diminishes the other must increase, * 
if the intensity is not diminished when sound goes from 
dense air to less dense, the square of the velocity, and hence 
the velocity of the particles, must increase. Therefore the 
velocity of propagation as well as the wave length must increase. 
Both of which conclusions are contrary to the theory. Hence 
again, if there was any such system of waves in a medium of 
varying density, these waves would all be of different length. 
And therefore it would be impossible for different particles 
to be in same phase, and hence the intonations of sound, the 
clang tint, or acoustic color, could not possibly be formed 
according to the theory as now maintained, and conveyed 
from the vibrating body to the ears of those within hearing, by 
such a system of waves. 

" Again, supposing it possible for these waves to be thus 
composed exactly alike in a medium of uniform density, then, 
as Ellen has said, the theory demands that, first, they should 
continue of the same length, and second, that the particles of 
which they are composed should be constantly decreasing in 
their movement inversely as the square of their distance from 
the sounding body. 

" Such a wave, if existing, must be composed of a certain 
number of particles. It may be any number — a billion or a 
hundred billions We will assume it is twelve particles. It 
has, too, by the theory, as all waves have, a certain definite 
length. We will suppose this to be one foot. Then each par- 
ticle must move one inch before it delivers up its motion, 
minus the very small diameter or thickness of the riarticles. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 28 1 

We will suppose that the motion of this wave is transferred to 
another exactly similar number of particles, — for by the theory 
it is the correlative of sound, carrying not only pitch and 
intensity, but all the intonations of tone, — and again, to 
another set, and thus continuously until the sound has reached 
every ear through which it is supposed to make a sensation. 
It will of course be a dilapidated correlative unless all of these 
transfers are made with perfect accuracy, a thing that could 
never happen, and this again exposes the idiotic, because 
impossible, character of the theory. 

"But supposing all this to happen, or after all this has hap- 
pened, two things are demanded by this theory. First, that 
the wave after the transition of its motion to an equal number 
of partieles, should be not only of the same length that it was 
when made, and hence, that the particles to which it is trans- 
ferred should vibrate precisely as the first particles composing 
the wave ; but also that they should vibrate with an amplitude 
diminished as the square of the distance increases. 

"And thus again we see the theory is full of folly and non- 
sense anywhere we touch it. Ellen gets awfully ashamed in 
discussing it." 

"The old Pine doesn't blame Ellen," I said, "and he won't 
ask her to discuss it much longer, but wishes she would finish 
her review of Mr. Tyndall's book." 



282 ELLEN OR THE 



XVIII. 

T X TELL, Ellen will try once more to please the old Pine. 
* ' Mr. Tyndall continues: 

'The difference of velocity in iron and in air may be illustrated by 
the following instructive experiment : Choose one of the longest hori- 
zontal bars employed for fencing in Hyde Park ; and let an assistant 
strike the bar at one end while the ear of the observer is held close to 
the bar at a considerable distance from the point struck. Two sounds 
will reach the ear in succession ; the first being transmitted through the 
iron and the second through the air. This effect was obtained by M. 
Biot, in his experiments on the iron water pipes in Paris. 

'The transmission of sound through a solid depends on the manner 
in which the molecules of the solid are arranged. If the body be 
homogeneous and without structure, sound is transmitted through it 
equally well in all directions. But this is not the case when the body, 
whether inorganic like a crystal or organic like a tree, possesses a 
definite structure. This is also true of other things than sound. Sub-, 
jecting, for example, a sphere of wood to the action of a magnet, it is 
not equally affected in all directions. It is repelled by the pole of the 
magnet, but it is most strongly repelled when the force acts along the 
fibre. Heat also is conducted with different facilities in different 
directions through wood. It is most freely conducted along the fibre, 
and it passes more freely across the ligneous layers than along them. 

Wood, then, possesses three unequal axes of calorific conduction. 

******** 

' When the tuning fork is first excited the sound issues from it with 
maximum loudness, becoming gradually feebler as the fork continues to 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 283 

vibrate. A person close to the fork can notice at the same time that 
the amplitude, or space through which the prongs oscillate, becomes 
gradually less and less. But the most expert ear in this assembly can 
detect no change in the pitch of the note. The lowering of the 
intensity of a note does not therefore imply the lowering of its pitch. 
In fact, though the amplitude changes, the rate of vibration remains the 
same. Pitch and intensity must therefore be held distinctly apart ; the 
latter depends solely upon the amplitude, the former solely upon the 
rapidity of vibration. 

******* * 

'When two notes from hvo distinct sources are of the same pitch, 
their rates of vibration are the same. If, for example, a string yield the 
same note as a tuning fork, it is because they vibrate with the same 
rapidity ; and if a fork yield the same note as the pipe of an organ or 
the tongue of a concertina, it is because the vibrations of the fork in the 
one case are executed in precisely the same time as the vibrations of 
the column of air, or of the tongue, in the other. The same holds good 
for the human voice. If a string and a voice yield the same note, it is 
because the vocal chords of the singer vibrate in the same time as the 
string vibrates. 

******** 

' Opening the innermost and outermost series of the orifices of our 
siren, and sounding both of them, either together or in succession, the 
musical ears present at once detect the relationship of the two sounds. 
They notice immediately that the sound which issues from the circle of 
sixteen orifices is the octave of that which issues from the circle of 
eight. In this way we prove that the physical meaning of the term 
"octave" is, that it is a note produced by double the number of 
vibrations of its fundamental. By multiplying the vibrations of the 
octave by two, we obtain its octave, and by a continued multiplica- 
tion of this kind we obtain a series of numbers answering to a series of 



284 ELLEN OR THE 

octaves. Starting, for example, from a fundamental note of 100 vibra- 
tions, we should find, by this continual multiplication, that a note five 

octaves above it would be produced by 3,200 vibrations. 

******** 

'The ear's range of hearing is limited in both directions. Savart 
fixed the lower limit at eight complete vibrations a second ; and to 
cause these slowly recurring vibrations to link themselves together, he 
was obliged to employ shocks of great power. By means of a toothed 
wheel and an associated counter, he fixed the upper limit of hearing at 
24,000 vibrations a second. Helmholtz has recently fixed the lower 
limit at sixteen vibrations, and the higher at 38,000 vibrations a second. 
By employing very small tuning forks, the late M. Depretz showed that 
a sound corresponding to 38,000 vibrations is audible. Starting from 
the note 16, and multiplying by 2, or more compendiously raising 2 to 
the nth power, and multiplying this by 16, we should find that at 11 
octaves above the fundamental note the number of vibrations would be 
32,768. Taking, therefore, the limits assigned by Helmholtz, the entire 
range of the human ear embraces about eleven octaves. But all the 
notes comprised within these limits cannot be employed in music. The 
practical range of musical sounds is comprised between 40 and 4,000 
vibrations a second, which amounts, in round numbers, to seven 
octaves.' 

"It will be seen from Mr. Tyndall's statements, that sound 
is conducted in wood very similarly to electricity. 

"This statement that the density depends solely upon the 
amplitude of a hypothetical wave is not correct. Mr. Ganot 
says : 

' Many causes modify the force or the intensity of sound. These are 
the distance of the sounding body, the amplitude of the vibrations, the 
density of the air at the place where the sound is produced, the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 285 

direction of the currents of air, and, lastly, the neighborhood of other 
sounding bodies.' 

"But all the other statements are both interesting and 
instructive. Indeed, outside of the wonderfully silly mistake 
as to air waves and a failure to perceive that sound like any- 
thing else must be an entity, the scientists have done much 
good work in elucidating and explaining sound. 

"Ellen will introduce here the. following quotation from the 
'Philosophical Magazine,' vol. 6, page 245, concerning the 
intensity and propagation of sound in gases and other bodies: 

'Perolle has made experiments on the intensity of sound in different 
gases, which seem to give a result contrary to those of Priestley, 
Chladni, and Jacquin jun. Maunoir and Paul, of Geneva, having 
inspired hydrogen gas without being incommoded by it, were much 
surprised, when they attempted to speak, to find that their voices had 
become shrill and squeaking. 

'Perolle has given experiments also respecting the propagation of 
sound, by which he shows that air is not the best medium for conveying 
it. He stopped his ears with bits of chewed paper, and, having applied 
his watch to them, could not hear the noise of its beating. He 
removed the watch, and placed it in contact with a small cylindric 
piece of wood, the other extremity of which touched one of those 
external parts of the head that propagate sound ; such, for example, as 
the cartilaginous parts of the ear ; and he then heard the beating of the 
watch. 

' He suspended the watch in the middle of a glass jar, and found 
that the sound reached him ; but having filled the jar with water, the 
sound was much stronger. The joints of the watch had been luted. 
He placed the watch on different bodies, such as wood a marble, table, 
etc., and found that the latter transmitted the sound faintly, while the 



2 86 ELLEN OR THE 

former transmitted it with greater or less force. He thence concludes 
that the sound of musical instruments, such as violins, harps, harpsi- 
chords, etc., depends on the property which wood has of transmitting 
sounds ; and that houses built of marble or stone are less sonorous, 
because these bodies are worse conductors of sound.' 

"In 'Nicholson's Journal,' vol. 2 (1805), the following state- 
ment is made by M. Hassenfratz in regard to the propagation 
of sound : 

' By the side of the high road that leads from the Place de la Con- 
corde to Chaillot along the bank of the Seine, on the stone wharf of St. 
Leir, opposite the steam engine of Gras-Caillon, is placed a railing 210 
paces in length, formed of 3 1 pieces of timber separated by four large 
posts. The blow of a hammer at one extremity of this railing was 
heard distinctly at the other, though through the air it was audible only 
120 paces. At the distance at which both the sounds were audible, 
that through the wood was heard long before the other ; and when 
standing at the greatest distance from the place of the blow, I heard 
the sound transmitted through the timber, the velocity of its transmis- 
sion was so great that it was difficult to distinguish any interval 
between the perception of the sound by the ear and the motion of the 
hammer by the eye.' " 

"But what does it all mean, Ellen," I asked, "that an 
increased number of vibrations varies the pitch? The old Pine 
would suppose that if vibration makes sound, more vibrations 
would make more sound." 

"It means," she said, "that there are different kinds of 
sound, just as there are of other things. And this is universally- 
true, both in nature and in art. Thus we have not only the 
different kinds of trees or plants which are made at different 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 287 

mills, but we have the different kinds of oaks or maples and so 
the different kinds of asters or dahlias made at the same mills. 
That is, the mills are similar, only there are some extra pieces 
of machinery added. And through the operation of this extra 
machinery different brands of the same thing are produced. 
This, too, is one of nature's fundamental and universal laws. 
The old Pine " 

"No," I said, " it would have been impossible for the old 
Pine to have done better. Indeed, he is very sure he couldn't 
have done as well." 

"Well," she said, "this is the way nature makes all things; 
and Ellen thinks it is a most marvellously complete and excel- 
lent system. The law governing it is precisely the same in 
the things made by man. There isn't the slightest difference, 
nor is there anywhere in the great laws of nature. Their 
operation is continuous and universal, and dips down into the 
domain of man as gracefully and as easily as a swan rides upon 
the waves. Ellen has referred to this before. Thus a chair 
factory, by adding a little machinery, makes different kinds of 
chairs, and piano factories different pianos. By these we can 
see exactly the principle that works and how it works. 

"Thus nature does with sounds. And so she does with the 
pattering rain- drops, for they are of very different sizes and 
character, though they are all rain-drops. Sometimes they are 
awfully big and sometimes they are awfully small, little bits of 
tiny ones, so fine that they almost frighten Ellen, for they get 
all over her clothes and into her hair. And it's just the same 
with the snow. The flakes are of many sizes and descriptions. 
There is the snow sifted by the wind, caught in its embrace 



288 ELLEN OR THE 

and whirled over the drifts ; and then there are the great white 
snow-flakes that balance themselves so daintily, and act as if 
they were sure that they were the most graceful thing in 
existence." 

"But they are not," I said; "in gracefulness and in beauty 
Ellen will give them points and beat them all ; for her step is 
as light as the zephyrs that caress her feet, nor is the dawn of 
the morning more beautiful." 

"The old Pine is always flattering Ellen," she answered, "as 
the sunlight flatters the hillside. And Ellen has to get along 
the best she can with all this flattery. But the old Pine will 
see that sounds are varied, as all things else, by addition 
or changes in the machinery that makes them. And none of 
them or anything else is ever made without machinery, though 
often the machinery is very simple." 

"But often," I said, "the different kinds of things come from 
different materials used, do they not, Ellen?" 

"Yes," she said. "These are the two great laws by which 
things may be varied — a change in the machinery that makes 
them, or in the material of which they are made. The two laws 
are universal, and, as Ellen thinks, apply to all things. And 
thus the pitch of sounds is altered by an increase in the number 
of vibrations. But the quantity, which represents the intensity, 
follows the universal law. If there are several sources of 
sound, there is more sound; and the whole amount is always 
exactly the sum of the different amounts produced. It also 
diminishes with the wear that comes from time." 

"But, Ellen," I said, "the text books and scientists are con- 
stantly speaking of pitch being due to the number of vibrations 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 291 

in a second. Is it necessary that a body should vibrate a 
second in order to be heard? " 

"Not at all," she answered. 

" But how long, or how many times, must it vibrate to make 
sound ? " 

. " Ellen cannot see why it need vibrate more than once to and 
fro. This is a complete vibration ; and if vibrations make 
sound, as we know they do, this should make sound. It is quite 
possible that it does not make sound enough for us to hear. 
For, as Ellen has before said, we hear by an aggregate of sound, 
just as we see by an aggregate of light. Nor would it be pos- 
sible for us to hear if there were not enough sound for us to 
hear by. And so it is quite possible that there might be so 
much sound as to rise above our perceptions. There are, 
beyond question, certain kinds of sounds which we cannot hear. 

" It follows, then, that not a certain number cf vibrations in a 
second make a certain note, but only vibrations at a speed 
equal to that amount. 

" As churning make? butter, so Ellen thinks vibration makes 
sound ; but butter stays where it is made, whilst sound is 
endowed in some way with a principle of flight. Thus water is 
endowed, but the cause of its movement is the hidden one of 
gravitation, and the action of this force is only in one direction. 
But sound goes with equal facility in all directions ; and so 
with light or electricity. They are therefore not under the 
influence of gravitation. 

"Rain is another thing that moves, carried in the clouds, 
and these are borne by the air whose motion is the result of 
elastic force. Nor, if the speed of sound is due to the elastic 



292 ELLEN OR THE 

force of the air, is there any possible reason for sound going 
faster than clouds ; and therefore the speed of sound is not due 
to the elastic force of the air. The assertion that the velocity 
of sound is due to the elastic force of the air, when it is per- 
fectly evident that it is not, is one of the many inexplicable 
features of this theory, which at all points reminds one of the 
remarkable experiences of Baron Munchausen: 

' The only circumstance,' says the Baron, ' which happened on our 
voyage worth relating was the wonderful effects of a storm, which had 
torn up by the roots a great number of trees of enormous bulk and 
height, in an island where we lay at anchor to take in wood and water ; 
some of these trees weighed many tons, yet they were carried by the 
wind so amazingly high that they appeared like the feathers of small 
birds floating in the air, for they were at least five miles above the earth ; 
however, as soon as the storm subsided they all fell perpendicularly into 
their respective places, and took root again, except the largest, which 
happened, when it was blown into the air, to have a man and his wife, a 
very honest old couple, upon its branches, gathering cucumbers ( in 
this part of the globe that useful vegetable grows upon trees ) : the 
weight of this couple, as the tree descended, overbalanced the trunk, 
and brought it down in a horizontal position : it fell upon the chief 
man of the island, and killed him on the spot.' 

"Is sound carried somewhat similarly to rain by a cloud, 
possibly a vibrating cloud, the rate of whose vibrations is estab- 
lished by the vibrating body? It appears that columns of air 
vibrate as a stretched string or a tuning fork, and in the same 
time, thus producing the same pitch. We know that sound is 
in some way produced by the original vibrating bodies and 
conducted from them by other bodies in contact, the chief 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 293 

of which, so far as man is interested, is air. But sound 
may also be conducted from the producing bodies to 
solid bodies whose action can be partially observed. Thus, 
if the handle of a tuning fork is placed against a wooden 
rod the sound may be conveyed through the rod to the brain, 
and we can feel the tremor of the rod as the sound goes 
through it. This tremor appears to be precisely the same 
as that which occurs in a sounding board, and presumably 
sound is conducted through the air, or other gas, in similar 
manner. This tremor in the sounding board or rod is gener- . 
ally called a vibration, but Ellen notices it is very different 
from the vibration of the prongs of the tuning fork or any 
body that is in what is called normal vibration. Try it; take 
a tuning fork, vibrate it, and hold the stem on a table; then, 
with the same fork, strike the table and thus throw it into normal 
vibration. The difference in the action of the table is as wide 
as that between noonday and darkness, and it would be impos- 
sible to suppose that the two results were produced by the 
same conditions. In a fork and string the vibrations are 
reciprocal and very nearly equal, like those of an oscillating 
pendulum. And, as Ellen thinks, this is the case with all 
bodies in normal vibration. But when sound is constantly 
advancing it is very certain that it does not vibrate in the direc- 
tion of its progress." 

"And how," I asked, "is sound so much increased by sound- 
ing boards, as that of the tuning fork by the table? " 

"The whole subject of the machinery for the production of 
sound, and its manner of operation, Ellen will discuss in connec- 
tion with the telephone and graphophone. It is certain 



294 ELLEN OR THE 

that the sound ceases when the original vibrating body 
ceases to vibrate. It is certain, too, that the prongs of a tuning 
fork stop vibrating more quickly when the stem of the fork 
comes in contact with a solid body. And experiment 
shows that the fork ceases to vibrate sooner when the stem 
is placed upon wood than when it is placed upon stone, 
suggesting that the result does not come from resistance, but, 
as will be shown later, from the conducting power of the body 
on which it is placed." 

"And what is the cause of sympathetic vibration?" 
"The character of the shores and bed of the channels through 
which sound passes. Ellen will make this very plain later. 
Thus usually a stream of water flows in straight course, but 
entering such a conformation as produces an eddy, a part of the 
water moves in a circle, whilst a part continues in its course. 
And thus streams of sound usually flow in straight lines, but 
entering certain bodies whose bed and shores are similar to those 
of the body by whose vibration the sound is made, a part of the 
sound is reflected back and forth, thus causing what is called 
sympathetic vibration. Fluids act that way just as dogs bark 
and bite, because it's their nature to. And they never consult 
scientists. They don't care anything about scientists. Awfully 
funny things, fluids are. The}' are not a bit polite ; just as 
soon run over Ellen's feet as anywhere else. And the fluid of 
electricity is as wavering in its course as the roots of a tree, 
moving where there's the least resistance ; — thus the lightning. 
And all fluids do the same thing ; for that is the way they 
are made. 

" Surely the old Pine doesn't suppose that either eddies or 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 295 

sympathetic vibration take place without cause, does he, 
or that the cause has something to do with the rings of Saturn, 
or the hiding of Moses in the bulrushes? Or does he think 
with the scientists that the cause is the hitting of these bodies 
by air waves that never had existence, or, if they did exist, 
would be entirely unable to make such bodies vibrate?" 

"Oh, no," I said; "the old Pine knows that nothing takes 
place without a cause, and that all causes must be, sufficient 
and closely connected with their phenomena. And he sees 
that the cause of an eddy is the nature of its bed and shores. 
And he sees, too, that the cause of sympathetic vibration must 
be, as Ellen says, in the nature of the channels of the body in 
which it takes place." 

"Sensible old Pine," she said. "In a somewhat similar 
manner the flowing of streams into pools or basins of lower 
level is explained. And thus electricity flows from a higher 
to a lower potential ; nor does Ellen see why such a feature 
with streams of sound need be more remarkable than the 
similar action of other streams. 

"For within certain limits sound, like light or heat or elec- 
tricity, is distributed evenly through the atmosphere and all 
bodies conducting it. Nor is it affected by the laws of 
gravitation. And this is one of the remarkable things con- 
nected with that division of matter which we are now con- 
sidering, that it appears to be outside of the action of 
gravitation. Nor can Ellen see anything remarkable in this; 
for gravitation, in whatever it consists, exists for certain 
purposes. Nor is there any reason to suppose that its action 
extends beyond these purposes. But Ellen does not think at 



296 ELLEN OR THE 

all that the laws of the universe are coincident with those of 
gravitation. For gravitation, as Ellen thinks, is but the flowing 
of streams of subtle matter, whose function is to hold in their 
places certain other portions of matter, which, especially, include 
the heavenly spheres, and all material things perceivable by us. 
It is ponderable bodies, and those only, which come under 
the influence of gravitation. They include all those things 
which are most intimately known to us, but, as Ellen thinks, 
they include a very small part of the immensity of the 
universe. For it is not reasonable to think that more than a 
small part should be revealed to an understanding hampered 
as ours is, and limited to a duration so brief. 

" Ellen now approaches a chapter in Mr. Tyndall's book that 
for ways that are dark and tricks that are vain is peculiar. It 
is the chapter on resonance, the principal statement in which 
is essentially false, and, as would appear, intentionally mis- 
leading. Ellen will quote : 

'The series of tuning forks now before you have had their rates of 
vibration determined by the siren. One, you will remember, vibrates 
256 times in a second, the length of its sonorous wave being four feet 
four inches. It is detached from its case, so that when struck against 
a pad you hardly hear it. When held over this glass jar, a b, fig. 14, 
18 inches deep, you still fail to hear the sound of the fork. Preserving 
the fork in its position, I pour water with the least possible noise into 
the jar. The column of air underneath the fork shortens, the sound 
augments in intensity, and when the water has reached a certain level 
it bursts forth with extraordinary power. A greater quantity of water 
causes the sound to sink, and become finally inaudible, as at first. By 
pouring the water carefully out a point is reached where the reinforce- 
ment of the sound again occurs. Experimenting thus, we learn that 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



29/ 



there is one particular length of the column of air which, when the fork 
is placed above it, produces a maximum augmentation of the sound. 
This reenforcement of the sound is named resonance. 

' Operating in the same way with all the forks in succession, a column 
of air is found for each, which yields a maximum resonance. These 
columns become shorter as the rapidity of vibration increases. 

'What is the physical meaning of this very wonderful effect? To 
solve this question we must revive our knowledge of the relation "of the 
motion of the fork itself to the motion of the sonorous wave produced 




by the fork. Supposing a prong of this fork, which executes 256 vibra- 
tions in a second, to vibrate between the points a and b, fig. 15, in its 
motion from a to b the fork generates half a sonorous wave, and as the 
length of the whole wave emitted by this fork is four feet four inches, 
at the moment the prong reaches b the foremost point of the sonorous 
wave will be at c, two feet two inches distant from the fork. The 



298 ELLEN OR THE 

motion of the wave, then, is vastly greater than that of the fork. In 
fact, the distance a b is, in this case, not more than one-twentieth of an 
inch, while the wave has passed over a distance of twenty-six inches. 
With forks of lower pitch the difference would be still greater. 

1 Our next question is, what is the length of the column of air which 
resounds to this fork? By measurement with a two-foot rule it is found 
to be thirteen inches. But the length of the wave emitted by the fork 
is fifty-two inches ; hence the length of the column of air which 
resounds to the fork is equal to one-fourth of the length of the sound 
wave produced by the fork. This rule is general, and might be illus- 
trated by any other of the forks instead of this one. 

* * * -#• * * * * 

' Reflecting on what we have now learned, you would have little diffi- 
culty in solving theTollowing beautiful problem : You are provided with 

a I 

j < z6 inches >c 



V 



Fig. 15- 

a tuning fork and a siren, and are required by means of these two 
instruments to determine the velocity of sound in air. To solve this 
problem you lack, if anything, the mere power of manipulation which 
practice imparts. You would first determine, by means of the siren, 
the number of vibrations executed by the tuning fork in a second ; you 
would then determine the length of the column of air which resounds 
to the fork. This length multiplied by four would give you, approxi- 
mately, the wave length of the fork, and the wave length multiplied by 
the number of vibrations in a second would give you the velocity in a 
second. Without quitting your private room, therefore, you could solve 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 299 

this important problem. We will go on, if you please, in this fashion, 
making our footing sure as we advance.' 

"These conclusions are entirely false, because they teach that 
resonance is due to a certain length of jar, and that this length 
is proportional to that of the hypothetical air waves, and for 
a perfect result is exactly one-quarter of their length ; the truth 
being, as is self-evident, that they have no relation whatever, 
not the slightest, with the supposed length of these hypo- 
thetical air waves. 

"The effect of resonance does not necessarily depend upon 
the height of the jar above which the fork is sounded. It 




Fig. 16. 

depends upon the general shape of the jar. With a fork of 
256 vibrations Ellen obtained the greatest resonance from a 
glass pitcher with handsome swelling form of eight and one- 
half inches in height, (fig. 16) ; the next best resonance was 
from a pitcher of different shape and somewhat lower. Good 
results were got all the way from one-half inch to nineteen 
inches from the same tin tube. With a regulation cylinder 
(of brass) having a diameter of two and seven-eighths 



300 ELLEN OR THE 

inches and eighteen inches long, furnished by instrument 
makers, the greatest reinforcement was at twelve inches 
instead of the theoretical height of thirteen inches. Prob- 
ably a cylinder could be made that would fit the theory, 
but this would mean that the resonance jar might be of any 
height. It follows as regards the speed of sound in different 
bodies, that the estimates depending upon the supposition that 
the best effects of resonance come from a jar one quarter of 
the length of these hypothetical air waves are wholly worthless. 

"The word resonance as applied to sound has two mean- 
ings. It may come from the reflection of sounds as in rooms, 
or, as in these experiments, it may be the result of an increased 
amount of vibration. It is the air that vibrates in jars, and it is 
essential that the jar should be of such shape that the air within 
it may vibrate synchronously with the sounding body. Ellen's 
experiments proved that the air in jars of very different shapes 
would thus vibrate, and that the greatest resonance is obtained, 
not from any particular length, but from certain conformations. 

"In the last chapter Mr. Tyndall refers to what is called 
interference of sound, or the supposed coincidence of air waves. 
It is stated that sound is thus increased in intensity or 
destroyed ; and that always similar instruments of the same 
pitch, if placed a wave's length apart, will reinforce, and, if half 
a wave length, will destroy sound. 

"These statements are not true; but when a vibrating 
tuning fork, held near the ear or near a resounding vessel, is 
turned around, a marked difference in the sound takes place. 
It is also in evidence that the diminution of sound connects 
with the vibration of the two prongs. For if something is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 301 

placed between the prongs, the sound is immediately increased. 
And this is the favorite experiment used to illustrate so-called 
wave interference, although there is no separation by a half 
wave or a whole- wave, but, instead, by a distance varying 
with different forks and generally quite small. 

"The two illustrations given are of sound acting in two very 
different positions. For entering the ear it finds its way to 
the auditory nerve and is so conveyed to the brain, but enter- 
ing the resonant vessel it causes the air within this vessel to 
vibrate synchronously with the sounding body, and so to pro- 
duce more sound. But in this they are alike, that in each case 
it is a question of sound entering or not entering the ear or 
resounding vessel." 

" And what is the explanation of the diminution in sound, 
Ellen?" I asked. 

"It would appear," she answered, "that, for some reason, at 
a certain line, where the streams of sound from the different 
prongs come together, sound is destroyed. When two con- 
flagrations come together, as prairie fires, the fire ceases for 
want of fuel. Possibly here, there is a lack of fuel to make 
sound. So when the opposite kinds of electricity unite, the 
phenomenon disappears. Ellen hasn't had time yet to make 
experiments enough to find out exactly what happens in these 
phenomena of sound, but she thinks it will be possible to find 
out. And of this we may be certain, that the explanation con- 
nects with the character of sound, and has nothing whatever 
to do with the march of Alexander's army through Persia, or 
the action of waves upon a body of still water." 



302 ELLEN OR THE 



XIX. 



4 "T^UT, Ellen," I said, "do not some scientists claim that 
'<■--' the velocity of sound does constantly vary?" 
"The different experiments to test the velocity of sound," 
she answered, " which Ellen has been able to find, are as fol- 
lows. Ganot says : 

'Since the propagation of sound waves is gradual, sound requires a 
certain time for its transmission from one place to another, as is seen 
in numerous phenomena. For example, the sound of thunder is only 
heard some time after the flash of lightning has been seen, although 
both the sound and the light are produced simultaneously ; and in like 
manner we see a mason at a distance in the act of striking a stone 
before hearing the sound. 

'The velocity of sound in air has often been the subject of experi- 
mental determination. The most accurate of the direct measurements 
was made by Moll and Van Beck in 1823. Two hills, near Amsterdam, 
Kooltjesberg and Zevenboomen, were chosen as stations : their dis- 
tance from each other as determined trigonometrically was 57,971 feet, 
or nearly eleven miles. Cannons were fired at stated intervals simul- 
taneously at each station, and the time which elapsed between seeing 
the flash and hearing the sound was noted by chronometers. This 
time could be taken as that which the sound required to travel between 
the two stations ; for it will be subsequently seen that light takes an 
inappreciable time to traverse the above distance. Introducing cor- 
rections for the barometric pressure, temperature, and hygrometric 
state, and eliminating the influence of the wind. Moll and Van Beck's 




W'tkf ■ ;■ Urn.. . 




WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 305 

results as recalculated by Schroder van der Kolk gave 1,092*78 feet as 
the velocitv of sound in one second in dry air at o° C. and under a 
pressure of 760 mm. Kendall, in a North Pole expedition, found that 
the velocity of sound at a temperature of-40 was 314 metres, or 1030*4 
feet. Stone's determinations, made at the Cape of Good Hope with 
very great care, gave 1090*57 feet, or 332*4 metres, as the velocity of 
sound at o°. 

'The velocity of sound at zero may be taken at 1,093 feet, or 333 
metres. This velocity increases with the increase of temperature and 
may be calculated for a temperature t° from the formula 

v= 1,093^(1+0-003665/) 
where 1,093 is the velocity in feet at o° C, and 0*003665 the coefficient 
of expansion for i° C. This amounts to an increase of nearly two feet 
for every degree Centigrade For the same temperature it is inde- 
pendent of the density of the air, and consequently of the pressure. 
It is the same for the same temperature with all sounds, whether they 
be strong or weak, deep or acute. Biot found, in his experiments on 
the conductivity of sound in tubes, that when a well-known air was 
played on a flute at one end of a tube 1,040 yards long, it was heard 
without alteration at the other end, from which he concluded that the 
velocity of different sounds is the same. For the same reason the tune 
played by a band is heard at a great distance without alteration, except 
in loudness, which could not be the case if sounds differing in pitch 
and intensity travelled with different velocities. 

'This cannot, however, be admitted as universally true. Earnshaw, 
by a mathematical investigation of the laws of the propagation of sound, 
concludes that the velocity of . a sound depends on its strength ; and, 
accordingly, that a violent sound ought to be propagated with greater 
velocity than a gentler one. This conclusion is confirmed by an 
observation made by Captain Parry on his Arctic expedition. During 
artillery practice it was found, by persons stationed at a considerable 



306. ELLEN OR THE 

distance from the guns, that the report of the cannon was heard before 
the command to fire given by the officer. And, more recently, Mallet 
made a series of experiments on the velocity with which sound is propa- 
gated in rocks, by observing the times which elapsed before blastings, 
made at Holyhead, were heard at a distance. He found that the larger 
the charge of gunpowder, and therefore the louder the report, the 
more rapid was the transmission. With a charge of 2,000 pounds of 
gunpowder the velocity was 967 feet in a second, while with a charge 
of 12,000 it was 1,210 feet in the same time. 

' Jacques made a series of experiments by firing different weights of 
powder from a cannon, and determining the velocity of the report at 
different distances from the gun by means of an electrical arrangement. 
He thus found that, close to the gun, the velocity is least, increasing to 
a certain maximum which is considerably greater than the average 
velocity. The velocity is also greater with the heavier charge. Thus 
with a charge of 1^ pounds the velocity was 1,187, an d with a charge 
of y 2 pound it was 1,032 at a distance of from 30 to 50 feet; while at 
a distance of 70 to 80 it was 1,267 and 1,120; and at 90 to 100 feet it 
was 1,262 and 1,114 respectively. 

'Bravais and Martins found, in 1844, that sound traveled with the 
same velocity from the base to the summit of the Faulhorn as from the 
summit to the base.' 

"It will be seen that in this matter of the speed of sound, 
the scientists do not know whether they are on foot or horse- 
back. They seem to be a very ignorant kind of people." 

"Yes," I said, "some go one road and some go another, led 
by theory and experiment." 

"And Ellen notices," she said, "that they don't lack long for 
an experiment to match a theory. So that, if they can decide 
what theory they want, they will soon be ready for the journey. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 307 

"The statement made by M. Ganot that 'this cannot be 
admitted as universally true,' is unusually stupid. It is like 
saying that water is influenced by the action of gravity, but 
that this cannot be admitted as universally true. The mathe- 
matical investigation by Earnshaw, showing that sounds of dif- 
ferent intensity have different velocities, assumes Laplace's 
explanation of the difference between theory and experiment 
in the velocity of sound to be correct; but in truth proves, as 
must be evident to any one with good sense, that it is incorrect. 

"The experiments by Jacques, barring errors, give the 
velocity of a pulse. The assumption that this is the same as 
that of sound is another illustration of the frequent inability 
of scientists to correctly interpret phenomena. 

"The experiments of M. Jacques are thus described in the 
'American Journal of Science,' vol. 117: 

' In the midst of a large level field was placed a six-pound brass 
field-piece. In the rear of this, at distances of 10, 30, 50, 70, 90 and 
no feet from mouth of cannon, were placed the membranes elevated 
about 3 feet above the ground. These membranes consisted of a hoop 
9" in diameter over which was stretched a sheet of thin rubber. To 
the center of the membranes and on the side toward the cannon was 
attached a very small shelf of polished brass. Upon this rested one 
end of a delicate steel spring, the other end being fixed to an inde- 
pendent support. 

'The wire that brought the current of electricity from the chrono- 
graph house was connected with the spring, and from the shelf a second 
wire returned to the chronograph. When the spring rested upon the 
shelf, the circuit was closed. The passage of the sound wave, how- 
ever, would move the membrane and break the circuit, causing a regis- 
ter on the chronograph. When the spring fell it rested upon the 



3oS 



ELLEN OR THE 



contact point from which a wire ran to the next membrane of the 
series, so that the circuit, immediately after being broken at the first 
membrane, was made again through the second before the sound wave 
reached it. In this way the current could be transferred to all the 
membranes of the series and the successive breakings and makings of 
contact, as the sound wave passed each one, could be registered on a 
chronograph placed at a distance. 

TABLE OF RESULTS, WITH VELOCITY REDUCED TO O C. 







Rear of Cannon. 






Distance from 






Side 


of Cannon. 


Mouth of Cannon. 










Cha 


rge, 1 v . 2 lbs. 


Charge, \. 2 lb. 






io- 30 feet. 




IO76 




' 




30- 50 " 




1187 


IO32 




1067 


50- 70 " 




1240 


1 091 




1162 


70- 90 " 




1267 


II20 




I20I 


90-110 " 




1262 


III4 




Il88 



' Had the cannon been turned in the direction of the line of mem- 
branes, the retardation would probably have become an acceleration. 
The experiment was of course impracticable. The conclusions are 
from these experiments : 1. That the velocity of sound is a function of 
its intensity. 2. That experiments upon the velocity of sound in which 
a cannon is used contain an error, probably due to the bodily motion 
of the air near the cannon. Evidently a musical sound of low intensity 
must be used to obtain the correct velocity of sound.' 

"The conclusions are of course utter nonsense, and arise 
from confusing a pulse of air with sound. 

"Prof. David Thompson, in his article on 'Acoustics,' in the 
Encyclopaedia Britannica says : 

'The experimental determination of the velocity of sound in air 
has been carried out by ascertaining accurately the time intervening 



WHISPERINGS OK AN OLD PINK 30CJ 

hetween the flash and report of a gun as observed at a given distance, 
and dividing the distance by the time. A discussion of the many- 
experiments conducted on this principle in various countries and at 
various periods, by Van Der Kolk {Loud, and Edin. Phil. Mag., July, 
1865), assigns to the velocity of sound in dry air at 32 Fahr., 109 1 
feet 8 inches per second, with a probable error of ± yj feet ; and still 
more recently (in 1871) Mr. Stone, the Astronomer Royal at the Cape 
of Good Hope, has found 1,090*6 as the result of careful experiments 
by himself there. The coincidence of these numbers with that we have 
already obtained theoretically sufficiently establishes the general accu- 
racy of the theory. 

'Still it cannot be overlooked that the formula for V is founded on 
assumptions which, though approximately, are not strictly correct. 
Thus, the air is not a perfect gas, nor is the variation of elastic force 
caused by the passage through it of a wave of disturbance always very 
small in comparison with the elastic force of the undisturbed air., 
Earnshaw (1858) first drew attention to these points, and came to the 
conclusion that the velocity of sound increases with its loudness, that is, 
with the violence of the disturbance. In confirmation of this statement 
he appeals to a singular fact, viz., that, during experiments made by 
Captain Parry, in the North Polar Regions, for determining the velocity 
of sound, it was invariably found that the report of the discharge of 
cannon was heard, at a distance of 2% miles, perceptibly earlier than 
the sound of the word fire, which, of course, preceded the discharge.' 

• '• The facts in regard to the experiments made by Captain 
Parry are thus reported by Rev. George Fisher, the astronomer 
of the expedition (Appendix to 'Parry's Second Voyage/' 
page 239) : 

' 'The experiments on the 9th of February, 1822, were attended wifch, 
a singular circumstance, which was, the officer's word of, command 



3IO ELLEN OR THE 

" Fire .! " was several times distinctly heard by Captain Parry and myself, 
about one beat of the chronometer (nearly half a second) after the 
report of the gun ; from which it would appear that the velocity of 
sound depended, in some measure, upon its intensity. The word " fire '"' 
was never heard during any of the other experiments. Upon this occa- 
sion the night was calm and clear, the thermometer 25 below zero, 
the barometer 28.84 inches, which was lower than it had ever been 
observed before at Winter Island.' 

"The statement of Mr. Thompson that the word 'fire' of 
course preceded the discharge is unwarranted. The occur- 
rence referred to was noticed on but one occasion, and might 
most naturally be accounted for on the supposition that the 
cannon was inadvertently fired before the word was given. 
In the nature of the case, as there would be several warnings,, 
the gunner would know about the time the word was to be 
spoken, and might naturally anticipate it. 

"In the ' Royal Transactions,' vol. 20, Mr. Walker says: 

' The Academy del Cimenta caused six arquebuses and six cham- 
bers to be fired one after another at the distance of 5739 English feet, 
and from the flash to the arrival of the report of each was five seconds. 
And repeating the experiment at the midway, the motion was in 
exactly half the time. 

' Mersennus and the Academy del Cimenta conclude that sounds are 
all of the same quickness, whether they be great or small. But Kircher 
from several experiments infers that loud sounds are quicker than little 
ones. Kircher says that an echo which repeated 14 syllables at night, 
repeated but seven in the day, which seems very odd. 

' Because there seems to be so great affinity betwixt the undulation 
of water and the propagation of sound, therefore the Academy del 
Cimenta tried some experiments about the first ; and they tell us that 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD FINE 3 1 r 

the larger the stone is, which is thrown into the water, and the greater 
the force, by so much is the undulation swifter ; though Gassendus had 
before affirmed that the undulations of water are equally swift.' 

" Mr. Geo. B. Airy, in his book ' On Sound,' says : 

'The first of the obvious laws of sound in general is, that it dimin- 
ishes with the distance. The accurate law of diminution will be con- 
sidered hereafter when we have applied mathematical investigation to 
the theory. The second law, which is less obvious, but which is suffi- 
ciently well known, and has been remarked by observant persons in all 
ages (see, for instance, Lucretius, VI. 169, etc.) is, that the propaga- 
tion of sound to a distance occupies time, and that the time required is 
sensibly proportional to the distance to be traversed. It is also 
well known that sounds of different pitch and of different loudness 
travel with sensibly the same speed : the sounds of a ring of bells, at 
whatever distance they are heard, fall on the ear in the same order. 
The velocity may be stated roughly to lie between 1000 feet and 1200 
feet per second. The numbers, and their variation under certain cir- 
cumstances, will be given with greater accuracy when we treat of the 
theoretical investigation.' 

"Mr. W. M. Higgins, in 'Philosophy of Sound,' says: 

1 The whole science of music may in one sense be said to depend on 
the fact that all sounds have the same velocity. If the velocity of 
sound changed with the pitch, nothing but discord would be heard by 
one who listened to music at a distance. On a still night music may 
be heard far away, and especially if the performers and listeners be 
separated by water, and yet the harmony is preserved. The time 
required for conduction is altogether independent of the pitch. 
Imagine it to be otherwise ; suppose the high notes to move faster 
than the lower ones, and what a chaos of sound would be produced by 



312 ELLEN OR THE 

the performance of a large band. We may, however, stand at any dis- 
tance and can discover no want of harmony from this cause ; there are 
no notes which are running before, and none that are lagging behind ; 
they are all of the same relative duration, and separated by the same 
interval of time, at a distance where they can be only just heard, and 
on the spot where drawn from the instruments that gave them birth.' 

" In vol. 27 of the 'London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philo- 
sophical Magazine,' Professor J. LeConte says : 

'On a fine and still evening of June, 1858, the Messiah was per- 
formed in a tent, and the Hallelujah Chorus was distinctly heard, without 
loss of harmony, at a distance of two English miles. As it is well 
known that the human ear appreciates, with the greatest nicety, the 
slightest differences in musical intervals, these facts may be considered 
as establishing the absolute consistency of the velocity of all sounds em-: 
braced within the musical scale.' 

" Sir J. F. Herschel, in an article on * Sound ' in the Ency- 
clopaedia Metropolitana, says : 

' In a paper communicated to the Royal Society in 1708 by Dr. Dur- 
ham, the subject of the velocity of sound is investigated more fully and 
distinctly than had before been done, and with some degree of attention 
to a variety of circumstances, such as : 1, The direction and velocity of 
the wind ; 2, Amount of barometric pressure ; 3, Temperature of the 
air; 4, State of moisture and dryness; 5, Weather, whether fog, rain, 
snow, etc.; 6, Nature of sound, how produced, by blow, quaintest 
voice, or musical instrument ; its pitch, quality and intensity ; 7, Orig- 
inal direction impressed on the sound by turning, for instance, the 
muzzle of a guii one way or the other ; 8, Nature and position of surface 
over which sound is conveyed. 

'To all these circumstances, except the wind, Durham attributes no 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 3 I 5 

effect on the velocity, though many, indeed all, have a powerful effect 
upon its intensity or loudness. 

-v * -* •:••- •# # * * 

'The cannonade of a sea fight between the English and Dutch in 
1672 was heard across England as far as Shrewsbury, and even in 
Wales, upwards of 200 miles. 

'That sounds of all pitches and every quality, travel with equal speed, 
we have a convincing proof in the performance of a rapid piece of music 
"by a band at a distance. Were there the slightest difference of velocity 
in the different notes, they could not reach our ears in the same precise 
order, and at the exact intervals of time in which they are played ; nor 
would the component notes of a harmony, in which several sounds of 
different pitch concur, arrive at once. M. Biot caused several airs to 
be played on a flute at the end of a pipe 3,120 feet long, which were 
distinctly heard by him at the other end, without the slightest disar- 
rangement in the order or intervals of the high and low notes. 

' A very material difference, however, is observed in the intensity 
with which sounds are propagated, or the distances to which they may 
be heard with equal distinctness according to a great variety cf circum- 
stances. Thus, if a sound be prevented from spreading and losing 
itself in the air, whether by a pipe, or wall, or otherwise, it may be con- 
veyed to very great distances with little diminution of force.' 

." Hutton's Mathematical Dictionary, 1795, says: 

'By the accounts published by M. Cassini de Thury, in the 
"Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris," 1730, where 
cannon were fired at various as well as great distances, under many 
varieties of weather, wind, and other circumstances, and where the 
measures of the different places had been settled with the utmost 
exactness, it was found that sound was propagated, on a medium, at 
the rate of 1,038 French feet in a second of time. But 1,033 French 



3l6 ELLEN OR THE 

feet are equal to 1,107 English feet. Therefore the difference of the 
measures of Derham and Cassini is 35 English feet, or 33 French feet, 
in a second.' 

" In the 'proceedings of the Royal Society of London/ vol. 
1 13, page 96 (1823), an article by John Goldingham says: 

'A scientific writer (Robertson) in a standard work, states that 
some of the most eminent philosophers, judging that the knowledge of 
the flight of sound might be of use on various occasions, have been at 
extraordinary pains and expense to measure the rate at which it moved ; 
and the result of their experiments, particularly of those which were 
best conducted, is as follows : 

' 1. That the velocity of sound is the same, whether by sea or by 
land, in dry or in rainy weather, by day or by night, in winter or 
summer. 

' 2. That sound, whether more or less strong, flies with the same 
swiftness. For by experiments a cannon fired with a half-pound charge 
of powder, was heard at about the distance of 17 j£ miles in the same 
time after the flash was seen as it was when fired with a charge of six 
pounds. 

' 3. That the times in which sound is heard are proportional to the 
distance : that is, at a double distance it is heard in twice the time ; at 
a triple distance, in thrice the time, etc. 

I This, however, is not supported at all points by the experiments- I 
am about to detail ; nor indeed could we expect it would be, from the 
manner in which sound is conveyed ; as this leads us to the conclusion, 
that the more dense and less elastic the atmosphere, the slower sound 
would travel.' 

II D. G. Gregory, in ' Economy of Nature,' says: 

1 Some curious experiments were made relative to sound by MM. 
de Thury Maraldi and de la Caille upon a line 14,636 fathoms in length, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE }1? 

having the tower of Mount Liberi at one end and the pyramid of Mont- 
martre at the other. Their observatory was placed between the two 
objects. The results of their observations were : i. That sound moves 
173 French fathoms ( 1,106^ English feet) in a second when the air is 
calm. 2. That sound moves with the same degree of swiftness, 
whether it be strong or weak. An explosion of half a pound of powder, 
discharged in a box, having been heard in the same space of time as 
the report of a great gun charged with nearly six pounds of powder. 
3. That the motion of sound is uniform, its velocity neither accelerating 
nor diminishing through the whole course of its progress. 4. That 
sound traveled at the same rate whether the gun be pointed perpen- 
dicular to the horizon, or towards the person who hears the report, or 
from him. By other experiments, hpwever, the progress of sound 
appeared to be impeded by a strong wind.' 

"These statements are quite complete and specific that 
sounds of different intensities travel at the same speed, and that 
this speed is independent of distance, nor do there appear to 
have been any well authenticated experiments to disprove this." 



3 18 ELLEN OR THE 



XX. 



•■'** T^HIS theory of sound seems to be a very stupid one/' 
* I said. 

'''Awfully stupid," she replied; "and it's everywhere stupid. 
The only merit Ellen ever found in it was its consistency in 
stupidity. Without exception the evidence is against it 
wherever examined, so that to believe it to be true, one has to 
believe something true which every particle of evidence contra- 
dicts ; and that, of course, no person with any sense would do. 

"This theory has been handed down from the time of Pythag- 
oras, the great Greek philosopher, or before. It hails from 
the same quarter and time as the Ptolemaic system of astron- 
omy, which, as we have seen, held that the sun went around 
the earth, and which for 2000 years or more was taught by 
nearly all the scientists on earth. 

" More accurately, this theory in its present form teaches 
that sound is propagated through the air from the center of 
disturbance or sounding body, by a so-called wave motion. — 
that is, a motion similar to that which takes place in still 
water, when a stone or other body is thrown into it. 

"This introduces a subject of great beauty, both of vision 
and melody, — that of waves. In the article on waves Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia says : 

' We next come to what are called oscillatory waves in water 
or other liquids. To this class belong all waves whose length from 



WHISPERINGS OF AN, OLD PINE ,31.9 

crest to crest is small compared with the depth of the liquid; 
ifrom ripples on a pool to the long roll of the Atlantic. They are never 
observed as solitary waves, their general characteristic being their peri- 
odical recurrence. And, by watching a piece of cork floating on the 
•surface, we see that it moves forwards when at the crest of the wave, 
and backwards through an equal amount when in the trough. Also it 
rises while passing from trough to crest, and sinks from crest to trough. 
.•Mathematical investigation, confirmed by experiments with floats at sea, 
and with short waves in the glazed box before d escribed, shows that 
'each particle of the water describes a circle about its position: of rest 
in the vertical plane in which the wave is advancing. Particles at 
i greater and greater depths describe smaller and smaller circles. The 
•diameters of these circles diminish with extreme rapidity. At a depth 
.equal to the distance from crest to crest (i. e., the length of the wave), 
. the displacement of the water is already only 1-5 35th of that at the 
surface. At the depth of two wave-lengths, it is about i-300,oooth of 
that at the surface. Thus we may see to how small a depth the ocean 
is agitated even i by the most tremendous wind-waves ; for, according 
to Scoresby, 43 feet is about the utmost difference of level between 
crest and trough in Ocean-waves. If the wave-length be 300 feet 
:(which is a large estimate), then at a depth of 300 feet the water-particles 
describe circles whose radii are only the 21.5 -5 3 5 th of a foot, or about 
four-tenths of an inch; and at 600 feet this, is reduced to 1-1 200th of 
■an inch: while the depth of the Atlantic is in many parts more than 
:'three or four miles. In this case, the velocity of propagation of the 
hvave has been shown to be 

\ 2tt 

where g is 32*2 feet; /is the wave-length in feet; and -n- is the ratio 
of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Thus, the velocity of 
an oscillatory wave in deep water is proportional to the square root of 

its length. * *" * 



320 ELLEN OR THE 

'* When the depth is not Infinitely great compared with the length of 
' a wave, theory and experiment agree in showing that the motion of 
each particle takes place in an ellipse whose major axis is horizontal.. 
These ellipses diminish rapidly in length as we descend in the liquid, 
but still more rapidly in breadth j so that, as was to be expected, the 
particles at the bottom oscillate in horizontal straight lines. The ex- 
pression for the velocity of propagation is now by no means so simple 
as in the previous cases — but it is easily shown to include the values 
already given. 

'So far, the first approximation. A section of the surface made by a 
vertical plane in the direction of the wave's motion, is shown to be 
bounded by the Harmonic Curve, or Curve of Sines, the form assumed 
by a vibrating string ; from which it follows that the crests are 
similar to the troughs. The second approximation makes the troughs 
flatter, and the crests steeper, and also shows that the particles 
are, on the whole, carried forward by each successive wave. The 
amount of this progression diminishes rapidly with the depth below the 
surface. A third approximation shows that the velocity is, ceteris pari- 
bus, greater the greater is the height of the waves. 

f When waves advance toward the shore, their circumstances change 
in general gradually, from those of oscillatory waves to those of waves 
of translation, as the depth of the water becomes less and less consid- 
erable in comparison with the length of the wave ; and it is found by 
experiment that they "break," as it is called, when the depth of the 
water is about equal to the height of the crest above the undisturbed 
level. All the curious phenomena of breakers are thus easily explained 
by the results we have already given, when they are considered with 
reference to the gradual alteration of the depth of the water. 

' Finally, we must notice a singular phenomenon often observed, viz., 
that of. a series of wayes breaking on the coast, every eighth, or ninth, 
or tenth, etc., is seen to be higher than its predecessors or successors 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 32 1 

The explanation is simple enough, and points to the simultaneous exist- 
ence of two or more sets of oscillatory waves of different lengths, due 
m general to quite distinct causes, which reach the shore together.' 

"The assumption of scientists is that sound is carried in the 
air by air waves, resembling water waves. Thus Professor 
Helmholtz, the highest scientific authority, says: 

'Suppose a stone to be thrown into a piece of calm water. Round 
the spot struck there forms a little ring of wave, which, -advancing 
equally in all directions, expands to a constantly increasing circle. 
Corresponding to this ring of wave sound also proceeds in the air from 
the excited point, and advances in all directions as far as the limits of 
the mass of air extend. The process in the air is essentially identical 
with that on the surface of water. * * * The process which goes 
on in the atmospheric ocean about us is of a precisely similar nature. 
* * * The waves of air * * * transport the tremor to the 
human ear exactly in the same way.' — Sensations of Tone, pages 14, 15. 

"The popular acceptance of the undulatory theories has 
unquestionably been largely due to this comparison with water 
waves, and the inference that the waves considered, whether of 
sound or light, are essentially the same. It reduced the 
theory to a practical condition, and was especially" satisfactory, 
because the manner in which water waves apparently pass each 
other, was supposed to represent the manner in which sounds 
pass each other. To further illustrate this fact, Ellen will quote 
as follows : 

"First, from the ' Circle of Sciences,' vol. 1, pages 13, 14, 52: 

' Quitting the material theory of heat, or, as it has been sometimes 
called, the " corpuscular," because corpuscles, or small particles, of 



'322 ELLEN OR THE 

this quasi-material were supposed to emanate from heated bodies-— we 

'mow proceed to investigate what has been termed the " Undulatory 
theory," or that which explains the production and effects of Heat, 
Light, etc., on the supposition that an "ether" by its wave-like or 

' iindulatory motion, is their mutual cause. 

'The term undulatory has been derived from the Latin word unda, a 
wave ; and the reader will understand the nature of the whole undu- 
latory theory by performing what at first sight may seem a most childish 
experiment ; but which has, in its application, as much effect on the 

' scientific theories of the present day, as had the notable one observed 
by Newton — namely, the falling of an apple. 

'On casting a pabble into a still pond, it will be observed that the 

, water forms a series of circles, all of which have the point where the 
stone first touched the water as their common centre. These waves, or 
undulations, thus created, continue to be produced, until the edge or 
bank of the pond prevents their further propagation. At first sight it 
would seem that the water really moved in a horizontal direction from 
the center : but, on a careful examination, such will not be found to 
be the case. Each particle of water communicates its motion to that 

. next to it ; and thus each particle is scarcely disturbed horizontally . 
the action rather raises the particles in an upright or vertical posi- 
tion ; and thus the apparent and actual motion afford a paradox, and 
also a refutation to the general idea "that seeing is believing." 

' A very familiar illustration cf the fact, that the body or mass of the 
water does not move, is found in the case of a swan or other bird float- 
ing on ruffled water. Instead of the bird moving in the apparent 
direction of the waves, in the absence of tide Or current, its body will 
retain its horizontal, although its vertical or perpendicular position will 
undergo continual change. 

1 By refining the ideas or imagination, and supposing the existence of 

, an extremely rare substance, which has been called " ether" undula- 






WHISPE RINGS OF AN OLD PINK 323 

tions in this material have been suggested as the cause of the forces of 
which we have now to speak ; and, as we shall presently show, that. > 
although the idea or theory has no exact foundation, still it has the ; 
inestimable advantage of explaining a variety of phenomena for which, 
we have no equally suitable expression. 

'Taking as a postulate the existence of an ether, we proceed to speak 
of its motion as the cause of forces ; and we may here remark, that : 
whilst the undulations of the ether may be proximate causes, we 
assume the existence of some unknown force, the action or suspension 
of which is the ultimate cause of the proximate. Of the ultimate cause 
we are ignorant ; we can only assign its origin to the First Cause, of . 
whom it has been recorded — 

"God said, Let there be light, and there was light." 

'When two pebbles are cast into the same still sheet of water, it will 
be found that the waves produced destroy each other when they come 
in contact in certain positions. Transferring our attention to the 
undulations of ether in a binary or two-fold form, we can thus explain 
the cause of interference and polarization; and assuming that any 
number of undulations may be produced by a similar number of 
initiative motions, we can, by applying the doctrine, explain a vast 
variety of the phenomena of the forces now under discussion. The 
reader will do well to study the effects produced by casting stones into 
still water, and by watching the results afforded when the radial waves 
intersect each other. Indeed, we cannot recommend any plan so 
effective for inducing an appreciative idea of the various laws to which 
the undulations of a fluid are subject.' 

"Second, from Professor Tyndall's Book 'On Sound,' pages; 
354-357- 

' From a boat in Cowes Harbor, in moderate weather, I have often 
watched the masts and ropes of the ships, as mirrored in the water. 



334, ELLEN OR THE 

The images of the ropes revealed the condition of the surface, indi- 
cating by long and wide protuberances the passage of the larger rollers, 
and, by smaller indentations, the ripples which crept like parasites over 
the sides of the larger waves. The sea was able to accommodate itself 
to the requirements of all its undulations, great and small. When the 
surface was touched with an oar, or when drops were permitted to fall 
from the oar into the water, there was also room for the tiny wavelets 
thus generated. This carving of the surface by waves and ripples had 
its limit only in my powers of observation ; every wave and every ripple 
asserted its right of place, and retained its individual existence, amid 
the crowd of other motions which agitated the water. 

'The law that rules this chasing of the sea, this crossing and inter- 
mingling of innumerable small waves, is that the resultant motion of 
every particle of water is the sum of the individual motions imparted 
to it. If a particle be acted on at the same moment by two impulses, 
both of which tend to raise it, it will be lifted by a force equal to the 
sum of both. If acted upon by two impulses, one of which tends to 
raise it, and the other to depress it, it will be acted upon by a force 
equal to the difference of both. When, therefore, the sum of the 
motions is spoken of, the algebraic sum is meant — the motions which 
tend to raise the particle being regarded as positive, and those which 
tend to depress it as negative. 

'When two stones are cast into smooth water, 20 or 30 feet apart 
round each stone is formed a series of expanding circular waves, every 
one of which consists of a ridge and a furrow. The waves touch, cross 
each other, and carve the surface into little eminences and depressions. 
Where ridge coincides with ridge, we have the water raised to a double 
height ; where furrow coincides with furrow, we have it depressed to a 
double depth ; where ridge coincides with furrow, we have the water 
reduced to its average level. The resultant motion of the water at 
even' point is, as above stated, the algebraic sum of the motions im- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE $2? 

pressed upon that point. And if, instead of two sources of disturbance, 
we had ten, or a hundred, or a thousand, the consequence would be the 
same ; the actual result might transcend our powers of observation, but 
the law above enunciated would still hold good. 

' Instead of the intersection of waves from two distinct centres of dis- 
turbance, we may cause direct and reflected waves, from the same 
centre, to cross each other. Many of you know the beauty of the 
effects produced when light is reflected from ripples of water. When 
mercury is employed the effect is more brilliant still. Here, by a 
proper mode of agitation, direct and reflected waves may be caused to 
cross and interlace, and by the most wonderful self-analysis to untie 
their knotted scrolls. 

'This power of water to accept and transmit multitudinous impulses is 
shared by air, which concedes the right of space and motion to any 
number of sonorous waves. The same air is competent to accept and 
transmit the vibrations of a thousand instruments at the same time. 
When we try to visualize the motion of that air — to present to the eye 
of the mind the battling of the pulses direct and reverberated — the 
imagination retires baffled from the attempt. Still, amid all the com- 
plexity, the law above enunciated holds good, every particle of air 
being animated by a resultant motion, which is the algebraic sum of all 
the individual motions imparted to it. And the most wonderful thing 
of all is, that the human ear, though acted on only by a cylinder of that 
air, which does not exceed the thickness of a quill, can detect the com- 
ponents of the motion, and, by an act of attention, can even isolate 
from the aerial entanglement any particular sound.' 

"The trouble with this law of resultant motions, given as the 
explanation of the action of these waves, is that the thing to be 
explained is two or more systems of waves passing each other, 
while a resultant motion would only at the best explain a single 
system. For a resultant motion is but one motion, and if the 



33& ELLEN OK THE 

motions of all the particles are reduced to resultant motions, 
there could be but one system of waves instead of two or more. 
Evidently, then, although there may be resultant motions 
among the particles, as in those which rise to double height, 
and others, this does not explain the progression of the waves. 

''With the multitude the effect of this legerdemain of waves, 
so long as it is not understood, is very great. The boy, greatly 
frightened by a barking dog, replied, when his mother asked if 
he did not know that barking dogs never bite, 'Yes, he knew, 
but he was afraid the dog didn't know.' And so the spectator 
watching water waves knows that no particle can go two dif- 
ferent ways at the same time ; but he is afraid that the particles 
don't know it. 

"But as those who have claimed this similarity between 
water waves and hypothetical air waves, not to mention 
assumed sound waves in earth, iron, steel, and other solid 
bodies, are of that class of men known as scientists, that Ellen 
has so often warned the old Pine against, who are very reckless 
in statement, often asserting things that are not only not true, 
but impossible, it will be necessary to examine and find out 
whether it is possible for such similarity to exist, as this which 
has been universally proclaimed by physicists, both in text 
books and lectures, to exist between water waves and imaginary 
air waves. 

"The claim that sound proceeds by waves from the excited 
point, in a manner essentially identical with waves, on the 
surface of water, may be tested in water itself. For water. 
is one of the mediums in which sound moves, and. with 
a rate of speed about three and one-half time? that in. air. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE j2i) 

If, then, sound is carried by waves essentially identical to water 
waves, that fact should be and must be illustrated in water 
itself. And if this were a fact, we would suppose that a sound 
caused by a stone falling into the water would be carried by the 
waves produced at the same moment and by the same cause. 
But nothing of this sort happens ; for whilst the water waves 
are circling at the slow rate of six or eight feet in a second, the 
sound is propagated by the water in all directions, by some 
method entirely invisible to the human eye, at a rate of about 
4,000 feet. This would seem to be sufficient proof that waves 
similar to water waves have nothing whatever to do with sound; 
for if sound does not make or use this kind of wave in water, it 
certainly does not anywhere else. It also becomes manifest that 
if sound is propagated by waves, there are two entirely distinct 
systems in water — the ordinary surface 1 wave with which air 
waves have been compared, and another entirely invisible in 
regard to which nothing whatever is known. 

"Mr. Tyndall's last statement that 'this power of water to 
accept and transmit multitudinous impulses is shared by air; 
•which concedes the right of space and motion to any number 
of sonorous waves,' is as purely imaginary as the explana- 
tion of the water waves. Air does nothing of the kind, and 
has nothing whatever to do with sonorous ; waves. The 
conception that the ear could detect the components of 
the extraordinary and complicated motion supposed, is 
.an illustration of the possible' conceptions of folly. It 
could no more do it than, by the undulations of the sup- 
posed ether, it could understand conversation going oh in 
the fixed stars. ; ' : ' 



3 SO ELLEN OR THE 

"Again, all water waves have a depth, which is called 
their amplitude, from crest to sinus (hollow), or sinus to 
crest, of about one to ten as compared with their length. 
This is an indispensable characteristic of water waves, as much 
as sphericity is of a sphere, or roundness of a circle. The 
old Pine will see, then, that if any waves whatever are possible 
in connection with sound they are essentially dissimilar to 
water waves. Indeed he will see that waves similar to water 
waves cannot possibly be used in the propagation of sound, for 
if they were their action would be perceived in water, iron, steel, 
and many other solids through which sound is conveyed. 
But this is not the case. 

"Disturbances made in the water below the surface spread 
but a little way toward the top. The disturbance made by a 
fish is seen only when the fish is near the surface, and good- 
sized stones or other bodies which, thrown into a pond,, 
would cause a system of waves that would extend many rods 
will, when dragged upon the bottom at four to six feet of 
depth, cause no waves upon its surface. 

"The water waves are all right. Ellen has had lots of fun in 
throwing stones into a pond and watching the rings of waves 
circle on every side, and especially in watching different rings 
apparently pass through each other. The water is pressed 
downwards and laterally by the stone, which thus starts the first 
ring of waves. In this ring there is quite a movement of the 
water thrown up by the stone. This is illustrated in throwing 
a stone beyond a chip or other article floating on the water, to 
bring it shoreward. Immediately, because of gravity^ the 
water rushes in to fill the space through which the stone 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 33 1 

passed. In doing this it rises above the normal level, thus 
starting the second ring of waves. The water is again 
dra^vn down by gravity and between the two forces (the motion 
first caused by the pushing of the stone and gravity) oscillates 
a number of times, forming each time a ring of waves, whose 
height decreases as the rings enlarge. 

" But the motion of water waves is not chiefly accomplished 
by one particle pushing another. Nor is any continuous 
motion thus accomplished. The water is started by the 
pressure of the stone, and so forced above the level 
and onto a ridge ■ or crest. From this crest it is 
pulled back by gravity into a maelstrom of agitated 
water. Gravity pulls down another particle on the other or 
advanced side of this first formed ridge, and this particle 
by its momentum and the action of other particles, is carried 
up and helps form another ridge, when gravity pulls it back 
into the first trough following that made by the stone. In 
the meantime a second inner ridge is formed by the same 
forces, when immediately and of necessity gravity again begins 
its work. And so the different ridges are formed, and by 
the nature of the conditions each one is carried outward with 
a widening circle. And so another and another particle of 
water is caught by gravity and pulled down in front of each 
advanced ridge, then urged by momentum to help form another 
ridge. And thus the circle of waves is continued, only, of 
course, it is not made by single particles of water, but by 
millions of them, all moved in a similar manner. The whole 
operation is as deceptive as a mirage. It's a chopped-up 
performance, in which the star performers are gravity and 



$$2 ; ELLEN OR THE ; 

momentum, with the water particles as puppets. Nor could it 
be continued at all except for the action of gravity." •- 

"Then," I said, "the different systems of waves do not pass 
through each other?" 

"Not at all," she said; "the whole thing is a delusion, 
or illusion. Different circles may meet each other, and thus 
the particles of colliding circles hit, when of course they 
will obey the laws of all colliding bodies, stopping, reflecting, 
or assisting each other according to the conditions under 
which they meet. But gravity doesn't care how the ridges 
from which it pulls the water drops are formed, whether by 
the performances of one ring of waves, or two, or more ; the 
higher its ridges the better its pull. So it ! continues its part 
of the work, and now the particles which advancing were carry" 
ing on one system, receding are sustaining the other. This\is 
practically true from the start. The whole performance is a dis+ 
connected one, but in which the different parts fit so perfectly, 
that its discontinuity is not apparent. In time the ridges 
and the surface of the water coincide, or the rings are dashed 
upon the shore, when all ■; the pull which gravity has is that 
back into the water. Reflected waves are, of course, made 
and continued in the same manner. n 

"The old Pine will see how utterly erroneous it is to com- 
pare a system of waves like these with that of the hypothetical 
sound waves. With the nature of water waves understood, no 
one with good sense would attempt it. Certainly, with their 
nature understood, no .one would be . deceived by any such 
comparison* ; .■//.' ^.nlm \ ■ ■. IJ cp.*>ob : . ■' ' "";■; 

"This ends the theory of sound; destroys, the illusion, and 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 333 

shows people how they have been deceived. For with the 
manner in which water waves are made understood, they have 
no more resemblance to the hypothetical air waves, than a 
squash vine has to the north star. For in not a single 
feature is there any similarity. "The one takes place upon the 
surface of a fluid, the other in the body of a fluid. The fluids 
are entirely different. Water waves are the result of conditions 
which take place nowhere else. Their only possible signifi- 
cance in this connection is in their illusory or deceptive char- 
acter. That is, so long as the world is ignorant of the manner 
in which they are made, it can be deceived in regard to them, 
and made to think that they constitute a new system for the 
propagation of motion that might be used in the propagation 
of sound. With their true character understood, and the 
impossibility of sound or light being propagated by similar 
motion, the undulatory theories as now taught, disappear. 
For, in the popular estimation or in fact, all the foundation 
these theories ever had was in their supposed resemblance to 
water waves." 



334 ELLEN OR THE 



XXI. 



|3UT why, Ellen," I asked, "should the scientists deceive 

*— " the world in such a matter, leading them to believe 

what is entirely false ? Do they riot profess above all others 

to be seekers after truth, following the most exact methods?" 

"Yes," she said, "Ellen has thought that sometimes they 
do profess too much. But largely it is because of their own 
ignorance. They are themselves deceived. Certain it is that 
no text book or writer in physics, so far as Ellen knows, has 
ever explained the nature of water Avaves, so that it might be 
generally understood. This explained, as Ellen has said, the 
undulatory theories are gone. The old Pine will see that it is 
impossible for waves like water waves to exist in air." 

" But the old Pine has noticed pictures of them in books on 
sound," I said. 

"Oh, yes," she answered; "the physicists draw a very per- 
fectly undulating line, embellish it with ordinates, and an axis 
of abscissas, and call it a sound wave. It is very amusing to 
Ellen to see them spend so much time describing something 
that not only doesn't exist, but can't exist, although they seem 
to be as well satisfied in discussing it, as though it really 
existed. And then those of them that have a smattering of 
mathematics will undertake to show how such a wave might be 
propagated." 



s 35 
o w 

& l-rl 



55' 5 

T5 > 

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o 




WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 337 

"And the old Pine also saw recently," I said, "an account of 
the photography of sound waves, assuming to give both, illus- 
trations of these waves and of their reflection." 

"Yes," she answered, " Ellen saw the article, in which dis- 
turbances made by explosions and by electricity are supposed 
to be sound waves. Ellen has already exposed the erroneous 
character of the assumption that disturbances in air made by 
explosions are sound. The supposition that those made by 
electricity are sound is substantially another phase of the same 
delusion. The gentleman furnishing the article in questipn 
claims to have photographed the sound wave caused by the 
crack of an electric spark, by the light of another spark. An 
electric spark on a small scale is precisely similar to a flash 
of lightning, and its crack to a thunderbolt. It is in the nature 
of electricity to violently disturb the particles of matter into 
which it enters. This is illustrated in the rending of any body 
struck by lightning. The following quotation from Ganot 
refers to this property, and demonstrates how the same result 
takes place when electricity enters a gas : 

• The mechanical effects are the violent lacerations, fractures, and 
sudden expansions which ensue when a powerful discharge is passed 
through a badly conducting substance. Glass is perforated, wood and 
stones are fractured, and gases and liquids are violently disturbed. 
The mechanical effects of the electric spark may be demonstrated by a 
variety of experiments. Thus the perturbation and sudden expansion 
which the discharge produces may be illustrated by means of what is 
known as Kinticrslef s thermometer. This consists of two glass tubes 
which fit into metallic caps and communicate with each other. At the 
top of the large tube is a rod terminating in a knob, and moving in 
a stuffing-box, and at the bottom there is a similar rod with a knob. 



33§ ELLEN OR THE 

The apparatus contains water up to the level of the lower knob. When 
the electric discharge passes between the two knobs, the water is driven, 
out of the larger tube and rises to a slight extent in the small one. 
The level is immediately re-established, and therefore the phenomenon 
is not due to a rise of temperature.' 

"It would appear by the illustrations in the article, that the 
gentleman furnishing if very ingeniously succeeded in photo'-,, 
graphing the disturbance thus made among the particles of 
air by the passage of an electric spark. The radiant quality of 
suqh particles would appear to be very fully illustrated in these 
photographs ; and in the action of these particles we may also ; 
see illustrated that of the very much more subtle particles 
which compose sound. Whether by improved methods of 
photography it may yet be possible to photograph a sound, 
mist, spreading in air, as it unquestionably does, in all directions 
from the sounding body, and reflecting after the wonderful 
character of radiant matter, as is fully illustrated by echoes, 
Ellen will not undertake to say ; but the air particles pushed 
by. explosive gases, or excited into activity by electricity, are 
no more sound than a ball is sound that comes back from a 
barn against which it is thrown. 

"Ellen is very much obliged to the professor who made these 
experiments, for the very beautiful illustrations he has given of 
the reflecting qualities of particles of air, and hopes that he may 
yet be successful in photographing sound, although, should 
that be accomplished, it would be as superfluous to call it 
sound waves as it would be to refer to mist, or fog, or clouds, 
as mist waves, or fog waves, or cloud waves. The word wave 
pertains to a surface, and has no legitimate use anywhere else." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 339 

"Then there are no waves in air?" 

"Not similar to water waves; the thing is impossible." 

"But there are differences of condensation?" 

"Constantly, and in every conceivable form and place. 
And therefore the air would be entirely unsuitcd to the carry- 
ing of symbols. But the physicists, not being at all respon- 
sible for results, assume and teach that it is so used; that by 
an arrangement of its molecules all the beauties of sound 
including its innumerable differences of tone and inflection, are 
conveyed, often for miles, through wind and rain, and the 
thousands of different interferences that they must constantly 
meet. Otherwise all this happens without cause. Mr. Tyndall 
admits that the mind retires baffled from the attempt to con- 
ceive how air waves could do this. And well it may, for it 
would be impossible for them to do it. But all this happens ; 
and it certainly does not take place without a cause, and a 
sufficient cause. Arid thus, as needed, the forces of radiant 
matter enter into the economy of nature, easily accomplishing 
the phenomena to which they are adapted. New forces, then, 
are introduced ; but man, not being able to see them, plays the 
fool, and imagines that things arc accomplished without an 
adequate cause — something that never happens in all this 
great universe. 

"All of this is very wonderful ; but it is possible. Ellen can 
well believe the wonderful, but she refuses to believe the, 
impossible. Tt is indeed very wonderful that by such infin- 
itesimal particles can be carried all the harmonies and inflec- 
tions of sound, but Ellen hardly believes that this is any more* 
wonderful than are all the phenomena of nature; certainly not 



340 ELLEN OR THE 

so wonderful as that the old Pine and Ellen can think, nor any- 
more wonderful to Ellen than the beauties that gaze out upon 
her from a flower." 

"But why does Ellen say that anything is impossible? " 
"Because with her mind she perceives it to be so. . For mind 
can easily distinguish the possible from the impossible in, 
nature. And there is no part of nature, so Ellen thinks, 
nothing in this material universe, which it is not able to com- 
prehend." 

"But it might be mistaken, might it not?" 
"Ellen doesn't think that in its higher perception it can be 
mistaken. From this it looks off upon all material existence 
and sees it plainly and truly. But it is demonstrable that the 
sort of result supposed by this theory to be accomplished, 
cannot take place in unconfined air. The claim is that the 
vibration of a tuning fork, or the motion of anything, whether 
in vibration or otherwise, in unconfined air, will condense 
this air, as the air in a tube is condensed by the shoving 
in of a tightly fitting piston. And the further claim is 
made that the pulse thus formed in unconfined air will be 
propagated by elastic force the same as a pulse made in the 
tube. This is the contention, and to fortify this position the 
scientists claim that the speed of a pulse in a tube is the same 
as that of sound. They also claim that the speed of all pulses 
is the same, whatever the force making them, and that they 
will be transmitted with uniform velocity. Thus Thomas 
Young, who with Huyghens invented the undulatory theory of 
light, says ('Miscellaneous Works,' edited by George Peacock, 
vol. i , page 79) : 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 34 [ 

1 The uniformity of the motion of light in the same medium, which is 
a difficulty in the Newtonian theory, favors the admission of the Huy- 
ghenians ; as all impressions are known to be transmitted through an 
elastic fluid with the same velocity.' 

"And again : 

'It has been demonstrated by M. De la Grange and others that any 
impression whatever communicated to one particle of an elastic fluid 
will be transmitted through that fluid with an uniform velocity, depend- 
ing on the constitution of the fluid, without reference to any supposed 
laws of the continuation of that impression.' 

"And does not Ellen think that all of this is true?" 

"Ellen knows that it is not true. In the first place sound 
has nothing in common with a pulse in a tube. It is some- 
thing entirely distinct and governed by wholly different laws. 
The pulse in a tube, by whatever force started, will go with 
varying velocity throughout its course, the velocity at first 
depending upon the manner in which it is made. In this 
respect it is precisely opposite to what the scientists and 
mathematicians have for over a century asserted to be a fact." 

''But," I said, "are not the velocities of the different pulses 
uniform, as Mr. Young claimed?" 

"Not at all," she answered. "Instead of being uniform, 
every one varies according to the intensity of the force which 
makes it." 

"But why," I asked, "should so eminent a scientist and 
mathematician as Dr. Young blunder so badly?" 

"It is precisely such that make the trouble," she replied. 
"Ellen has quoted before that famous remark attributed to 
Socrates by Plato that it is not those who do not know, and 



342 ELLEN OR THE 

know that they do not know, who make the trouble, but those 
who do not know and think they do." 

"And Ellen thinks that a pulse started in unconfined air will 
not act like a pulse in a tube?" 

" She is sure that it will not." 

" But," I said, "is not the undulatory theory of sound 
founded upon the supposition that it will and does?" 

"Certainly," she answered, "this is its whole and only basis, 
though it is inconceivable how any sensible person could sup- 
pose it. For it is as open as the day that a pulse in a tube 
behaves as it does, because of the tube. The tube operates to 
take away from the air its mobility, giving to it a certain 
solidity. -.; 

"We know how a pulse of air acts, confined in a tube; 
Thus, suppose a long tube and a piston, tightly fitted, shoved 
in at one end. The pulse will pass very quickly through the 
tube, and exactly as much air come out of the further end as 
was pushed in by the piston. So through the whole length of 
the tube, all the particles of air are shoved along this distance. 
In this case the air acts as a stick, one end of which would go 
out of the tube as far as the other end was pushed in, and 
nearly at the same moment ; and so the whole stick would be 
advanced through the tube. The action of the air in the tube 
is evidently produced by motion going through the tube, 
just as motion goes through the stick. 

" For in some way motion enters into the different 
particles of a body, so as to carry them, and when it carries all 
of them it of necessity carries the body which they form. 
Thus, if all the planks and timbers forming a ship are 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 343 

carried, the ship is carried. And if all the particles forming a 
stick are carried, the stick is carried. In thus entering a body, 
motion seems to act as a fluid. It is stated that if an iron rail 
reached from the earth* to the sun, and were pushed at one 
end, it would take 1,075 days for the other end to move. 

"Motion is divided into that of translation when all parts of 
a body move at once in parallel lines; motion of rotation when 
the different points of the body describe concentric circles 
about its center; and a combination of these two." 

" But what is the motion called oscillatory?" I asked. 

" Ellen cannot see that oscillatory motion can exist anywhere 
excepting as there are two reciprocally operating forces. Thus 
a pendulum oscillates, influenced by the two forces of gravity 
and momentum. In water waves, gravity and momentum act 
as in a pendulum. Momentum is Mr. Newton's principle of 
inertia of motion, or supposed inability of a body to alter the 
condition in which it exists. But this so-called inertia of 
motion, as Ellen thinks, is the result of a moving sub- 
stance connected with the body that moves. That is, it is the 
result of unbalanced motion, motion itself being matter. When 
this unbalanced motion is withdrawn we have the inertia of rest. 
Thus a ship moves because of the motion imparted to it by its 
sails. And thus the ship acquires the inertia of motion. 
Withdraw the sails and it may acquire the inertia of rest. Thus 
a chip upon a. stream moves whilst the stream exists, but if the 
stream dries up, the chip's movement is:stopped. It is not true 
that the chip has no power of movement of its own, for it has. 
And so everything has, but it is a slow motion, and the result of 
disintegration. So that, as a chip, it may be said to have no 



344 ELLEN OR THE 

such motion. In its entirety it can be moved, but cannot move 
itself. But all motion is a property of matter, the same as exten- 
sion is, or mobility, or impenetrability, or elasticity. 

"There is no question in regard* to the transmission of 
motion through elastic bodies. Take two equal elastic balls, 
hung with threads, and let them fall from equal heights in the 
arc of a pendulum. Each bounds back equally, theoretically 
the distance that it fell, practically a little less, some motion hav- 
ing been lost by friction. If these balls fall in the same arc from 
Unequal distances, they will apparently swap motions perfectly, 
the one falling in the shorter arc returning in the arc of the 
other, and the one falling in the longer arc returning in the 
shorter one, thus apparently showing that what takes place is 
an interchange of motions, by which each motion continues 
its course unobstructed by the other. The same results seem 
to take place when one ball is stationary, and single balls 
of same size are let fall from equal distances on each side. 
And in all cases where balls of equal size are dropped there 
would appear to be a transfer of motion. In all of these cases 
the motion is the result of gravity, but it would act the same, 
however originating. 

"But when balls of unequal sizes collide, the results appear 
different. A small ball, thrown against a large one at rest, 
rebounds, as a ball thrown against a barn or wall rebounds, only 
not quite so much. And by careful experiments with balls of 
different sizes, and under many different conditions, it appears 
that in such cases pressure produces motion, and always the 
motion produced by a moving body is in proportion to 
momentum, that is, to the mass of the body multiplied by the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 345 

velocity with which it is moving. And the motion thus pro- 
duced is in the direction of the moving body ; or, if one of the 
bodies is stationary, the motion caused by the resistance of the 
stationary body is in opposition to that of the body which 
strikes it. This law and the further one that opposite motions 
destroy each other, while partially opposing motions produce 
resultants, appear to be the laws of all motion. 

" But motions are substances ; that is, they are matter in one 
or more of its phases. And therefore, like all matter, they are 
indestructible. But motion is energy, and hence energy is 
indestructible. That it is so is a great truth which modern 
science has blundered upon, though not perceiving that it is 
but another way of proclaiming the indestructibility of 
matter. 

"The fundamental and universal law of motion is that 
it is rectilinear; though the old Pine mustn't be confused 
in its possibilities, as it may be rectilinear in any direction. 
And this with the law of resultants provides for motion every- 
where, or in any direction. Surely these are very simple laws 
for such wonderful results. It is these that make the old Pine's 
whisperings. For his leaves are ever moving like a restless 
sea. Thus, then, comes all motion ; and this includes that of 
electricity and sound. For the motion that passes through air 
in a tube, or the motion that passes into and through a stick, 
when it is pushed, causing it to move; or the motion that 
passes through a train of cars when they are pushed, causing 
them to move, — all motion is a result of pressure, and pressure 
is a result of contact. It's an awfully simple way to get up 
motion, isn't it?" 



54^ ELLEN OR THE 

"Yes,'' I replied ; "there couldn't be any simpler method. 
But when opposing motions meet a-nd destroy each other, what 
becomes of them?" 

"They are changed into something else — probably heat. 
We know that at the same time heat is produced. Possibly a 
certain part of such motion is -changed into something besides 
heat. Ellen does not know,- but apparently the , most;' of 
it, if not all, is changed into heat. And thus again is evident 
the transformation of matter." r; ' 

"But is not the transformation too sudden," I asked, "to 
Represent that of matter?" -! i 

"Not at all. For the transformations of matter, so far: as 
we can perceive, are not limited in time. With some thingsy 
as rocks, or mountains, or spheres, ages are consumed in 
the process of decay. With others, as animals and plants, a few 
brief years, more or less. And again, as soap bubbles, or 
gases, or in many chemical changes, that by electricity for 
instance, or in light or heat, the transformation may be nearly 
instantaneous. As the world is full of collisions, there must be 
a constant supply of heat being produced." 

" And what becomes of the surplus heat?" 
1 "Probably under pressure it is in part drawn upon to form 
motion. But it is very evident that the different changes 
follow, in some form, nature's great system of circulatory 
action. • ; : : ■ 'y 

. " The destruction or partial destruction of one thing always 
precedes the formation of another. For it is the same matter 
that makes ^all ; nor can the same matter make more than .one 
thing at a time. It cannot be in two different places at the 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 347 

same time. Ellen understands that the scientists do not recog- 
nize this last law, as illustrated in the kinetic theory of gases 
and their theories of light, heat, etc., but that is because, like 
all those who embrace superstitions, they have entirely lost 
their heads." 



34-S ELLEN OR THE 



XXII 



^TT is elastic force that pushes the air in the tube, is it not, 

' Ellen?" 

"Call it elastic force, or call it motion. It must be similar 
to, if not the same as, that which moves the stick." 

"Then Ellen doesn't think that the air in a tube, influenced 
by the shoving of a tight-fitting piston, will act the same as the 
unconflned air under the same influence?" 

"The old Pine ought not to ask Ellen so foolish a question." 

"But Ellen will please tell the old Pine how differently it 
will act." 

"The difference would be like that between darkness and 
day ; it would literally be world-wide. For in a tube, the air 
being confined would act as Ellen has said ; but in unconflned 
air from the same force there would be very much less notice- 
able disturbance. For because of the mobility of the air the 
pressure exerted would spread in all directions and be soon 
dissipated. By the hypothesis we have the same force, and 
the same force will produce the same momentum ; but the 
momentum is equal to the mass into the velocity, Then if 
the mass increases the velocity must diminish, or if the mass 
diminishes the velocity will increase." 

"But what becomes of the theory of sound, Ellen?" 

"There isn't any theory," she answered, "except the entity 
theory. For an intelligent explanation of a pulse in a tube 
shows that the other never had any existence. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 357 

"Ellen will quote to the old Pine a very plain exposition of 
the action of energy or force, something which every .scientist 
ought to know as perfectly as a bright schoolboy knows the 
multiplication table. It is from ' Force,' one of the excellent 
scientific books written especially for the young, by Jacob 
Abbott : 

' Lawrence went on to say that the principle which he referred to was 
this : that force was an agency that existed always in definite and 
measurable quantities, such that, though it might be transferred from 
one place of deposit to another, and so be accumulated or dispersed, it 
could not in any way be increased or diminished. 

'"Yes," said John, "it can be increased; for when your grindstone 
was spinning round very fast, it exerted a great deal more force than 
Rick did by the power of his foot." 

'"It exerted more force in any one instant'' 1 said Lawrence, "than 
Rick could exert in that instant; but the whole amount of all the im- 
pulses that Rick gave to it was equal to all that the grindstone could 
exert ; that is, there was in the stone an accumulation of a great many 
small forces, and not any increase of the whole amount. 

' " It was like filling a pail with water by pouring in a great many 
mugsful from a spring," continued Lawrence. "It is true, you may 
increase the quantity that is in the pail, and in that sense we may say 
there is an increase ; but there is no actual increase on the whole, for 
the amount that is in the pail, when it is full, is only made up of the 
separate amounts of all the dipperfuls. There can not be, absolutely, 
in the whole amount, any increase or diminution." 

' "There might be a diminution," said John, "for some of the water 
might be spilled." 

'"True," replied Lawrence, "a part might be spilled, and a part 
might dry up ; but none of it would cease to exist on that account. 



35 2 ELLEN OR THE 

Wherever it went when it was spilled, or wherever the vapor went of 
that which was turned into vapor, there it would be. There might be a 
diminution of the quantity in the pail, but there could be no diminution 
of the actual amount of water employed in the experiment. Precisely 
the same amount, neither any more nor any less, would exist somewhere 
at the end of the experiment that existed at the beginning. 

'"And it is just so in respect to force," continued Lawrence. "Pre- 
cisely the same quantity that we have at the commencement of any 
process, or at the entrance, so to speak, of any combination of machin- 
ery, exists somewliere at the end of the process ; or, in the case of 
machinery, must be stored in it, or must issue from it in some way. 
There can not possibly be any real gain or loss of force any more than 
there can be of water. A great many small or gentle forces may be 
combined to make a great one, and, on the other hand, a great one may 
be subdivided into many small ones, but there can not, in either case, 
t>e any absolute increase or diminution of the amount." ' 

''Again it is evident that this thing force consists, as all 
things else, of the same wonderful matter, of which all things, 
- — force as well as those things which we do not consider as 
force, — are made. The law of its creation is the same as that 
of an orange, or any other material thing. Faraday says : 

l \ have long held an opinion, almost amounting to conviction, in 
common, I believe, with many other laws of natural knowledge, that 
the various forms under which the forces of matter are made manifest, 
have one common origin ; or, in other words, are so directly related 
and mutually dependent, that they are convertible, as it were, one into 
another, and possess equivalents of power in their action.' 

"But this is true of all matter and is the essential part of the 
principle that nothing is or can be destroyed. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 353 

"And thus, too, thought and the emotions as manifested to 
us are made, as Ellen thinks, out of the same matter, by the 
same law of combination. For they, too, must be made of 
something. But in this material universe there is nothing else 
but matter to make things of, hence they must be made of 
matter. That they are is also evident, because, as Ellen has 
said before, we see them. They are plainly visible in the 
thoughtful or emotional expression. Nor do we see such 
expression except as thought or emotion exists. With the 
idiotic all thoughtful expression is absent, and it is absent 
because they do not think. 

"Again, all our sensations are the result of material condi- 
tions. And it is equally true that all material things are the 
possible source of sensations. And these sensations are of 
every conceivable variety, yielding both pleasure and pain, 
instruction and amusement. But thought and the emotions 
are sources of sensation. And this is further evidence that 
they are material. 

"And thus all things in this material universe are made of 
that substance which we call matter. For God, when He made 
the material, made it sufficient for every purpose. 

"And all things are made by machinery constructed by mind. 
This machinery may be very simple, or it may be quite com- 
plex, but always in some form it exists. The machinery which 
makes vision is quite complex. That which makes light may 
be more simple. That which makes thought, again, is more 
complex, connected with the gray matter of the brain. But 
there is or can be no thought or emotion made manifest in 
material conditions without the proper machinery to make it. 



354 ELLEN OR THE 

"All science which does not recognize the distinction 
between mind and matter is folly ; else, as Ellen has said, the 
spade could make the man as well as the man the spade. All 
science which does not recognize the universality of nature's 
laws, both of mind and matter, is baseless ; for science consists 
alone in the order made possible and made certain because 
of such laws. And this is what the Bible means when it says 
that God made man after His own image. And therefore the 
perception of the manner in which things are made by us 
permits us to know how all things are made. This is the 
knowledge that we have of the creation, and all that we have. 
Besides this there are only opinions, which are bad, all. 

" Is it possible that scientists suppose that a great force, or 
any force, subdivided into mam- small ones, produces the same 
effects as though it were not? According to the undulatory 
theory of sound they believe exactly this. Wouldn't it be 
well for any sensible man, whether scientist or not, to give up 
a theory which teaches so great an absurdity? 

"Take a pail of water. Does any one suppose that it will act 
the same if thrown upon a flat surface, as it would if turned into 
a channel? Will it run as fast, or will it go as far? In think- 
ing of such self-evident propositions, the intelligent answer to 
which entirely does away with all undulatory theories, Ellen is 
led again to ask, — In order to be a scientist is it necessary 
that one should be a fool? 

"For scientists and the text books base the undulatory 
theory of sound upon the action of a pulse in a tube ; and, 
indeed, have absolutely nothing else whatever to base it om 
Thus Ganot says; 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 355 

' In order to simplify the theory of the propagation of sound in air, 
we shall first consider the case in which it is propagated in. a cylindrical 
tube of indefinite length. Let MN (fig. 17) be a tube filled with air at 
a constant pressure and temperature, and let P be a piston oscillating 
rapidly from A to a. When the piston passes from A to a. it com^ 
presses the air in the tube. But in consequence of the great compres- 
sibility, the condensation of the air does not take place at once throughr 
out the whole length of the tube, but solely within a certain length, aH, 
which is called the condensed wave. 

'If the tube MN be supposed to be divided into lengths equal to, aH b 
and each of these lengths divided into layers parallel to the piston, it 



H'" 



F 
Fig. 17. 
may be shown by calculation that, when the first layer of the wave aH 
comes to rest, the motion is communicated to the first layer of the 
second wave HH', and so on from layer to layer in all parts of H'H", 
H"H'". The condensed wave advances in the tube, each of its parts 
having successively the same degree of velocity and condensation.' 

"The last. statement, which in this theory is the essential one, 
is not true ; but, on the contrary, experiment proves that the 
speed of this pulse diminishes throughout its course, and there- 
fore each of its parts cannot have successively the same degree 
of velocity and condensation. 

" Mr. Ganot further says: 

'When the piston returns in the direction of a A, a vacuum is pro- 
duced behind it, which causes an expansion of the air in contact with 
its posterior face. The next layer, expanding in turn, brings the first 



356 ELLEN OR THE 

to its original state of condensation, and so on from layer to layer. 
Thus when the piston has returned to A, an expanded ivave is produced 
of the same length as the condensed wave, and directly following it in 
the tube where they are propagated together, the corresponding layers 
of the two waves possessing equal and contrary velocities. 

' The whole of a condensed and expanded wave forms an undulation ; 
that is, an undulation comprehends that part of the column of air 
affected during the backward and forward motion of the piston. The 
length of an undulation is the space which sound traverses during a 
complete vibration of the body which produces it. This length is less 
in proportion as the vibrations are more rapid.' 

" These paragraphs are both untrue, and must be, for when the 
piston is returned, a much greater rarefaction is produced than 
that in advance of the first pulse formed, and therefore that 
pulse will cease to advance, being caught in its progress and 
drawn back. There can be no question about this if the tube 
is long enough, for the speed of the pulse, or, in this case, of 
two pulses, will be in proportion to the force acting. But after 
the return of the piston the force acting and the only force 
acting is the elastic force of the air. And as this will have much 
better opportunity to act on the retrogressive pulse, the latter 
must soon reach the advance pulse, when the result spoken of 
will take place, and all the air of the tube will return to its 
original position. 

"It follows that, were this theory true, the rarefactions must 
travel faster than the condensations, and therefore it would be 
impossible for the two to form the so-called wave length, or to 
have any permanent connection with each other. Perceiving 
this fact, it has been asserted by some physicists, who were not 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 35/ 

clear-headed enough to perceive that the whole thing is a 
humbug, that sound is accomplished alone by the condensa- 
tions. And the fact that ear drums are concave within, so that 
they could not bend in without stretching, has been offered as 
further proof of this. 

" Mr. Robert Moon demonstrates mathematically that rare- 
factions would go faster than condensations, as reported in the 
'Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,' vol. 9, which 
says : 

' Reverting to the equation of sound, which (neglecting terms of the 
second order) may be put under the form 

d 2 y .,d 2 y^ d 2 y 

1 o= a ~ 1 :>± 2 a-e-j- \ ; 
dt 2 dx 2 dx dt 

the author next shows that if the initial disturbance consist of a con- 
densation alone, it will be transmitted with the velocity a (l—e) the 
direction in which its particles are moving ; and that if it consists of a 
rarefaction alone, it will be transmitted with the velocity a (/+<?) in the 
direction contrary to that in which its particles are moving. It is here 
shown also incidentally, that whether the resistance be taken into 
account or not, the particles of a wave of condensation must all move 
in the same direction, which will be the- direction of transmission ; and 
the particles of a wave of rarefaction will all move in the same direc- 
tion, which will be contrary to that of transmission. 

' In confirmation of the conclusion that waves of rarefaction are 
transmitted more rapidly than waves of condensation, the author 
adduces the fact, that when explosions of gunpowder have taken place, 
the glass in windows has been observed to break outwards rather than 
inwards. 

'It is then suggested, that, as when sound is produced, a condensa- 
tion and rarefaction of air usually occur in immediate succession, if 



3^8 ELLEN OR THE 

both kinds of disturbance were capable of affecting the human ear, we 
should hear sounds double : and as .we know practically that this is not 
thecase, it is contended that only one kind of disturbance, i. e., either 
rarefaction alone, or else condensation alone, can stimulate the ear. 

' It is shown to be a prio?i probable, that if one of the two classes of 
aerial disturbances is suppressed by the ear, that one would be disturb 
ance by condensation, inasmuch as waves of rarefaction being swifter, 
would better perform the duty entrusted to them : and it is pointed out 
that if the sensation of sound is produced by aerial rarefactions alone, a 
difficulty attending the received theory will be obviated, by reason of 
the velocity deduced upon that theory being too small.' 

" Mr. Ganot continues : 

' It is important to remark that if we consider a single row of par- 
ticles, which when at rest occupy a line parallel to the axis of the cyl- 
inder — for instance, those along AH" (fig. 17) — we shall find they 
will have respectively at the same instant all the various velocities which 
the piston has had successively while oscillating from A to a and back 

p 



Fig. 18. 

to A. So that if in fig. 18 AH' represents the length of one undula- 
tion, the curved line H'PQA will represent the various velocities which 
all the points in the line AH r have simultaneously ; for instance, at the 
instant the piston has returned to A, the particle at M will be moving to 
the right with a velocity represented by QM ; the particle at N will be 
moving to the left with a velocity represented by PN, and so on of the 
other particles.' 

"There is no truth whatever in any of this, as the experi- 
ments of M. Regnault and others, which Ellen will give further 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 359 

on, have demonstrated. Since, as proven, the line AH' does 
not represent the length of one undulation, it is not necessary 
to consider the imaginary undulatory line. 
" Again Ganot says : 

' When an undulatory motion is transmitted through a medium, the 
motions of any two particles are said to be in the same phase when 
those particles move with equal velocities in the same direction ; the 
motions are said to be in opposite phases when the particles move with 
the same velocities in opposite directions. It is plain from an inspec- 
tion of fig. 18 that when any two particles are separated by a distance 
equal to half an undulation, their motions are always in opposite phases, 
but if their distance equals the length of a complete undulation their 
motions are in the same phase. A little consideration will show that in 
the condensed wave the condensation will be greatest at the middle of 
the wave, and likewise that the expanded wave will be most rarefied at 
its middle.' 

"Under no circumstances do particles of a pulse in a tube 
move with equal velocities ; and therefore it would be impos- 
sible for them to be in the same phase according to this defini- 
tion. Nor, the unequal oscillations and consequently unequal 
velocities of these particles being admitted, can the last part of 
the statement be true. 

"Mr. Ganot continues: 

It is an easy transition from the explanation of the motion of sound 
waves in a cylinder to that of their motion in an unenclosed medium. 
It is simply necessary to apply in all directions to each molecule of the 
vibrating body what has been said about a piston movable in a tube. 
A series of spherical waves alternately condensed and rarefied is pro- 
duced around each center of disturbance. As these waves are con- 



360 ELLEN OR THE 

tained within two concentrical spherical surfaces, whose radii gradually 
increase, while the length of the undulation remains the same, their 
mass increases with the distance from the center of disturbance, so that 
the amplitude of the vibration of the molecules gradually lessens, and 
the intensity of the sound diminishes. It is these spherical waves, 
alternately condensed and expanded, which in being propagated trans- 
mit sound.' 

"In the above a pulse has been exploited in a tube and 
called a sound wave. The whole conception is one of the 
grossest ignorance and is utterly untrue. Now, Mr. Ganot 
says that it is an easy transition from the explana- 
tion of a fictitious sound wave in a tube to that of a 
fictitious one in the open air. This may be true. Who- 
ever could talk of the one, might readify of the other, but any- 
one would have to be densely ignorant of fundamental 
mechanical principles to suppose the -action of one similar to 
that of the other in either velocity or distance passed over. 

"There follows the glib remark of one scientist, imitating 
other scientists, about spherical waves, of which Mr. Challis, 
professor for many years of astronomy in the University of 
Oxford, England, and one of the most eminent mathematicians 
of the last century, and withal in addition, which is of far more 
consequence in the discussion, an honest man, says ('Philo- 
sophical Magazine,' vol. 33) : 

' Before I proceed with the inquiry carried on in several preceding 
numbers of this journal, I wish briefly to notice the views put forth by- 
Mr. Stokes in the November number, respecting a supposed remarkable 
difficulty in the Theory of Sound which he says that I have pointed out. 
What he alludes to I have not myself called a difficulty, nor do I so 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 363 

regard it. By an investigation contained in the " Philosophical Maga- 
zine" for last April, I found that the general character of aerial vibrations 
is non-divergence, and that the theoretical velocity of sound is different 
from that usually adopted. Mr. Airy urged against these conclusions, 
that my equations represent a particular case of the propagation of 
plane waves : in answer to which I proved, by a reductio ad absurdum, 
that plane waves are physically impossible. This proof, which forms the 
subject of Mr. Stokes's remarks, is given in the " Philosophical Maga- 
zine," S. 3, vol. xxxii., from line 16 of page 496 to line 12 of page 497. 
The absurdity to which the hypothesis of plane waves conducts is, that 
the points of maximum velocity and of no velocity in the same wave 
may be at the same point of space at the same time. Mr. Airy did not 
reply. Mr. Stokes, however, undertakes to maintain plane waves by 
the following considerations. He first finds that a point of maximum 
velocity 7 of a wave travels at a rate different from that of a point of 
velocity, and consequently that there is at least great danger of one 
overtaking the other. When this absurdity is on the point of being 
consummated, the wave, as he conceives (for there is nothing in the 
analysis to indicate such a result), is converted into a breaker. What 
the subsequent motion is Mr. Stokes thinks it would not be worth while 
to inquire, but proceeds to support, by considerations which it is not 
necessary to particularize, the possibility of the physical existence of a 
surface of discontinuity at the position where the abrupt alteration of 
the character of the wave takes place. How then stands the question? 
According to my reasoning plane waves are physically impossible ; 
according to Mr. Stokes's, plane waves are wholly incompatible with the 
transmission of articulate and musical sounds. The only conclusion 
from either result is, that the hypothesis of plane waves is inadmissible. 
' It may, however, be urged that spherical waves are physically pos- 
sible ; and that as these become plane waves at an infinite distance 
from the center, the latter are also physically possible. I have already 



364 ! ELLEN OR THE 

met this argument in the communication above referred to ; but as the 
reasoning is given briefly, and may possibly have been overlooked, I 
will repeat it here. I take the results of the hypothesis of spherical 
waves as they are given in Poisson's " Trait de Mecanique" (vol. i, 
page 706, 2d ed.), and as they are commonly admitted. The pressure/ 
being a 2 (i -f<x), the following expression is obtained for the condensa- 
tion a at the distance r from the center at the time /, 

f(at-r) . 
ar ' 

and it is stated that there is no condensation wherever r is greater than 
at-\-t, and less than al—e, 2 a being the breadth of the sonorous undu- 
lation. Hence, supposing 2 e very small compared to r, and putting for 
r outside the function, its value a t corresponding to the middle of the 
wave, the quantity of matter existing at any time in the wave beyond 
what would occupy the same space in the quiescent state of the fluid, is 
very nearly 

if {at— r)dr 



4-n-a- 



a 2 t 



the integral being taken from r==«/— e to r=at-\-e. Calling A the 
constant value of this integral, the expression for the quantity of matter 
becomes 4-n-At. Hence the matter increases in quantity with the time .' 
Now the very equations from which this result is derived are founded 
on the supposition that the quantity of matter is constant. There is 
consequently no difficulty here which any physical considerations can 
explain, but strictly a reductio ad absurdum, which necessitates the 
important conclusion that the hypothesis of spherical waves is inadmis- 
sible. The physical impossibility of plane waves was proved by the 
same kind of reasoning ; and any attempt to reconcile the contradiction 
in either case is simply illogical. As neither the hypothesis of plane 
waves nor that of spherical waves is admissible, the theoretical value of 



WHISPERINGS OF :VNi OLD PINE 365 

sound which rests on those hypotheses necessarily fails of support. I 
return now to the consideration of non-divergent waves, or as they may 
also be called, ray vibrations.'' 

"Mr. Ganot further says: 

' If many points are disturbed at the same time, a system of waves is 
produced around each point. But all these waves are transmitted one 
through the other without modifying either their lengths or their veloci- 
ties. Sometimes condensed or expanded waves coincide with others of 
the same nature to produce an effect equal to their sum ; sometimes 
they meet and produce an effect equal to their difference. If the sur- 
face of still water is disturbed at two or more points, the co-existence 
of waves becomes sensible to the eye.' 

" And this he says after having distinctly stated in the open- 
ing chapter of his book that the intimate character of all these 
agents is completely unknown. Ellen will quote again this 
remarkable statement, illustrating how very different a scientist 
talks when telling the truth from what he does when teaching 
science : 

' In the present state of science we cannot say whether they [the so- 
called imponderable agents, of which sound is one] are properties 
inherent in matter, or whether they result from movements impressed 
on the mass of subtle and imponderable forms of matter diffused through 
the universe.' 

"The statement that all these waves are transmitted one 
through the other without modifying either their length or their 
velocities evinces a talent that Baron Munchausen might well 
have envied. 



366 ELLEN OR THE 

" As usual at this emergency, to sustain glaringly impos- 
sible conditions, the narrator falls back upon the delusion of 
water waves." 

"And doesn't Ellen think that the pulse in a tube is moving 
at the rate of sound ? " 

"She does not; for she thinks that sound moves always at 
the same speed as far as it can be heard, and she knows that 
the speed of a pulse in a tube varies throughout its course." 

"And doesn't Ellen think the pulse in a tube sound?" 

"She knows that it is not." 

"And doesn't she think it carries sound?" 

"Not as a pulse. For if it did it would carry it in tincon- 
fined air as well, and there would be a great difference in the 
speed of the two. But there is no such difference in the speed 
of sound. 

"But what takes place always when a piston or anything 
else is pushed in a tube or in unconfined air, is the propaga- 
tion of motion. And Ellen will repeat: in a tube this motion 
may extend for a long distance, in unconfined air but a short 
distance, being dissipated in all directions ; and in each case the 
velocity of the movement would diminish with the distance. 
It would hardly be possible to consider a simpler problem 
than this." 

"It seems to the old Pine," I said, "that certainly teachers of 
science and mathematical principles should not fail to see a 
thing so plain." 

"The failure is a ridiculous one," she said, "and yet mathe- 
maticians will spend much time in ciphering about impossible 
wave motion and other absurd theories like that of the tides, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 367 

and publishers of encyclopaedias and text books will allow them 
to be filled with the nonsense." 

"And isn't Ellen over severe," I asked, "in her criticisms of 
mathematics and mathematicians?" 

"Mathematics are a beautiful and delightful stud)'," she 
replied; "a little hard at first to some, though readily mastered 
by most with proper application and capable assistance." 

"But is not mathematics a singular noun?" I asked. 

" It is in German, French and Latin, being so spelled, and so 
formerly the word mathematic was used in English, but as now 
in English it has the plural form, and as also in its nature it is 
plural, being composed of several parts, Ellen does not care 
to follow a usage which would make it singular. If it is 
desired to consider it singular, the spelling should conform, as 
in other languages. 

" A few will learn them without assistance, and many more 
with but little. Once on the road to success, the whole of them, 
so far as they are known, can be easily acquired, though pro- 
ficiency in their manipulation, that is, in the art of performing 
examples, is mainly, like skill in all things, a matter of practice. 
It is just as much so in what are called the higher mathematics 
as in the lower; in calculus, as in arithmetic. Nor with, = a 
reasonable amount of practice is it any more difficult to per- 
form a problem in algebra, in analytical geometry, or in cal- 
culus than in arithmetic ; to use Taylor's theorem than to use 
the multiplication table ; the difference being entirely in the fact 
that many are accustomed to add, subtract, and multiply 
figures, because of the practical uses of such in life, while few 
have reason to perform the operations of the calculus, equally 
simple, when known. • \t ■■• ■■>• 



368 ELLEN OR THE 

"But there is this difference between the two branches of 
mathematics which Ellen has just mentioned, that the one is 
accurate and the other not. For the fundamental principle 
of the calculus is inaccuracy, in the neglect of what are called 
infinitesimals. In many examples this introduces error, so that 
the results reached are at the best only approximately correct, 
and to' this circumstance, and the consequent inability to know 
whether the work done has any value or not, is perhaps partly 
due the perseverance of mathematicians in so many worthless 
theories. 

" Ellen thinks that all mathematical conditions can be cor- 
rectly instead of incorrectly analyzed, and in time will be. 
Thus, for example, much mathematical work is based upon 
the assumption that at their limits the chord and arc of a circle 
are equal. A curved line is unquestionably the resultant of 
rectilinear forces; these forces, that is, the lines of which 
an arc or a circle is the resultant, may be obtained, and the 
mathematics founded on such results are true ; but it is not 
true that the chord can ever be equal to the arc, for in their 
nature they are essentially different. It is also true that the 
difference in length which exists between them, which may- 
be a very considerable amount, is composed of these differ- 
ences which, by this system of mathematics, are considered 
negligible and are neglected. In many other ways possible 
errors enter into such calculations, so that this whole line of 
mathematical demonstrations of hypotheses, such as those of 
the tides, or of undulatory theories, are intrinsically more or 
less worthless, in addition to the fact that the assumptions upon 
which these theories are based do not exist." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 369 

"But is it possible," I asked, "that the great mathematicians 
would spend quite a share of their lives in useless ciphering?" 

" The old Pine mustn't be too severe," she answered. "They 
are doing the best they know how. They are mathematicians. 
They are able to do a certain thing and do it well. Many of 
them are not able to do anything else notable, or at least not 
equally well. Under such circumstances it would be foolish to 
suppose that they would stop ciphering. Indeed, this igno- 
rance itself is an incentive to work, and, as Ellen thinks, the 
fault is not so much with those who pretend knowledge, which 
they do not have, as with those who are foolish enough to be 
deceived by such pretenses. And the moral is that we must 
accept nothing from human sources, no matter how great or 
long continued may be the authority, unless it can stand the 
test of common sense. 

"All that Ellen is saying about the limitation of present 
knowledge in mathematics, and consequent errors in results 
obtained by them, none know better than mathematicians 
themselves, and those among them who are fair and honorable, 
and by nature are seekers after truth, preferring her triumph to 
delusive positions and a little vain authority for themselves, 
will point it out. Thus Ellen has noticed the following extracts 
from philosophical magazines. Prof. J. Le Conte, formerly of 
the University of South Carolina, at Columbia, thus writes in 
the ' London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine,' 
vol. 27, pages 6 and 7: 

' The difficulties and uncertainties embraced under the second head 
originating in the different physical interpretations of the mathematical 
processes and their results, are of a more intractable character. Here 



3/0 ELLEN OR THE 

we plunge into the quicksands of equations of partial differentials, of 
discontinuous functions, and of integrals containing arbitrary functions; 
the arbitrariness of which has a signification in the applications of the 
functions to physical questions. Many of the most interesting and 
important dynamical problems involve the consideration of the true 
signification of mathematical results which are known to have been 
reached by processes which are not rigorously exact. Many of the 
equations are utterly unmanageable and incapable of integration Unless 
certain assumptions are made. Hence questions in relation to the 
warranlableness of such assumptions in particular cases are perpetually 
arising among the most eminent mathematicians. Such difficulties in 
the mathematical theory of sound have been sources of perplexity and 
controversy from the time of Lagrange and Euler to the present period. 
It is very questionable whether the vast amount of intellectual energy 
and analytical ingenuity recently displayed in the discussions of the 
various points bearing on this problem by Challis, Airy, Stokes, Moon, 
Rankin, Haughton, Potter, Earnshaw, and others (however instructive 
and important in other respects) has made any substantial contribution 
towards a clearer reconciliation of the physical with the mathematical 
aspects of the questions at issue. It is not my purpose to venture upon 
ground rendered historical by the labours of the greatest geometers of 
the present century. But I must insist that purely mathematical ques- 
tions should be kept quite distinct from the physical considerations, — 
and that, in problems of this character, wo deduction from analvsis is 
worthy of confidence which does not admit of a rational pliysicial inter- 
pretation, capable of being tested by observation or experiment.' 

"And James Clerk Maxwell, in the 'Transaction's of the 
Royal Society of Edinburgh,' says: 

' There are few parts of mechanics in which theory has differed more 
from experiment than in the theory of elastic solids. Mathematicians, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE $y[ 

setting out from very plausible assumptions with respect to the consti- 
tution of bodies and the laws of molecular action, came to conclusions 
which were shown to be erroneous by the observations of experimental 
philosophers. The experiments of Oersted proved to be at variance 
with the mathematical theories of Navier, Poisson, and Lane and 
Clapeyron, and apparently deprived this practically important branch 
of mechanics of all assistance from mathematics.' 



ellkn ok rut: 



XXIII. 

^'T'HE most accurate and complete experiments regarding 
* the action of a pulse in a tube were made by the very 
celebrated physicist, M. Regnault, of Paris. The following 
resume, translated from the French, is given in the ' London, 
Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine,' vol. 35 : 

' In fact, when we assert that a gas is perfectly elastic, we assume : — 

'(1) That it exactly obeys Mariotte's law. Experiment, however, 
shows that all gases deviate more or less from this law. 

'(2) That its elasticity is not affected by surrounding objects. But 
my experiments on the propagation of waves in tubes show that the 
walls of the tubes exert a very notable influence. 

' (3) That the gas does not oppose any inertia to the transmission of 
the wave. Now my experiments show that the emission of a strong 
wave always causes a true displacement {veritable transport) of the first 
gaseous layers, which displacement considerably increases the velocity 
of the wave's propagation, especially through the first portion of its 
course. 

' (4) In order to make allowance for the acceleration produced by 
the sudden disengagement of heat which takes place at the moment of 
the wave's passage, Poisson's law is introduced into the calculation. 
But this law is only exact if the gas has perfect elasticity, if it obeys 
Mariotte's law, etc. 

' Finally, the theoretical calculation assumes that the excess of com- 
pression which exists in the wave is infinitely small compared with the 
barometric pressure supported by the gas. But the experiments made 



n *- 

3 < 



ore 



7. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 375 

to determine the rate of sound in free air have been hitherto made by 
means of a cannon, and the wave has been reckoned from its source, 
namely the cannon's mouth. Now this wave as it leaves the cannon is 
under enormous compression — a compression, it is true, which dimin- 
ishes very rapidly as the wave spreads spherically through space ; but 
during the first part of its course it cannot be supposed that its com- 
pression is infinitely small. 

'When the excess of compression in the wave is a sensible fraction of 
the compression of the gaseous medium at rest, we can no longer 
employ Laplace's formula, but must have recourse to a more complex 
formula embracing the true elements of the problem. Even the 
formula which I have given in my Memoir is only an approximation ; 
for it implicitly admits Mariotte's law and all its consequences. 

'In short, the mathematical theory has as yet only touched upon the 
propagation of waves in a perfect gas — that is to say, in an ideal fluid 
possessing all the properties which had been introduced hypo the tic ally 
into the calculation. It is therefore not surprising that the results of. 
my experiments often disagree from theory. 

' I. According to theory, a plane wave in a straight cylindrical 
tube should advance to an indefinite distance with a constant velocity. 
My experiments show that the intensity of such a wave continually 
diminishes, and this the more quickly the less the section of the tube 
employed. 

•' In order to establish this fact conclusively, I created waves of equal 
intensity by discharging one gramme of powder from the same pistol at 
the orifices of conducting tubes of very different sectional areas, and I 
endeavored to ascertain the length necessary to be traversed for the 
explosion to become inaudible. I have further endeavored to measure 
the much longer path, at the end of which the inaudible wave ceases to 
give any indication upon the most sensitive membranes which I have 
used. 



3/6 ELLEN OR THE 

. 'Thus the discharge in a pistol of i gramme of powder gives a vibra- 
tion in the air (son ) which becomes inaudible when it has traversed 

1 150 metres in a tube of the diameter 0.108 metre. 
3810 metres in a tube of the diameter 0.300 metre. 
9540 metres in a tube of the diameter 1.100 metre. 

' These lengths are sensibly proportional to the diameters. It is 
nevertheless probable that the path would be longer were not the wave 
subjected to successive reflections which continually diminish it. 

'When the wave has no. longer sufficient intensity to produce the 
sensation of sound upon the ear, or when it has been so far modified as 
to be unable to do so, it may nevertheless, even after a very prolonged 
course, still mark its arrival upon the membranes. 

' Thus when the wave is produced by a charge of 1 gramme of pow- 
der, it makes its last impression upon a membrane when it has passed 
over the following courses : — 

4056 metres in a tube of diameter 0.108 metre. 
1 T430 metres in a tube of diameter 0.300 metre. 
1985 1 metres in a tube of diameter 1.100 metre. 

'But in a pipe of 1.100 diameter, which forms the grand service-pipe 
of Villemonble, I have observed paths of much greater length, — the 
charge of powder, it is true, being raised in this case to 2.40 grammes. 
Thus in the table showing the results of one of the series of experiments 
made with this large tube, the last mark 'corresponds to a wave which 
had traversed 58641 metres ; and if the bands of paper were allowed to 
remain, it was easy to detect as many as ten returns of the wave to the 
membrane A. This is, in effect, a path equivalent to 97735 metres, or 
nearly 100 kilometres ; but the bands of blackened paper were then so 
long that I found it impossible to collect the indications of more than 
six returns ; the band of paper with this number had already reached 
the length of 2 7 metres. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK }/7 

'What are the causes which thus weaken a plane wave when it is 
propagated in a straight cylindrical tube? They are of several kinds ; 
but the chief one undoubtedly depends upon the continual loss by the 
wave of a part of its vis viva by the reaction of the elastic sides of the 
tube. This is shown distinctly in the great tube of the Saint Michel 
sewer, which is supported upon iron columns in a large vaulted gallery. 
When the wave first passes, a very loud noise is heard outside, in what- 
ever part of the course the observer is situated. Consequently a con- 
siderable part of the vis viva is thereby scattered abroad. The same 
takes place at the extremities and at all the openings furnished with 
membranes. This loss necessarily continues after the wave has ceased 
to have sufficient intensity to affect the ear : and it is, strictly speaking, 
sufficient to explain why the sound becomes extinguished, and how the 
wave becomes so enfeebled as no longer to disturb the most sensitive 
membranes. Rut I do not think that this is the only cause at work. 
There is another which arises from an action of the solid wall upon the 
gas, whose elasticity it sensibly diminishes. I shall give proof of this 
immediately. 

'II. Laplace's formula does not contain the expression of the 
intensity of the wave. According to this formula the rate of propaga- 
tion of a wave is the same, whatever its intensity may be. But accord- 
ing to the more general formula which I have given, this velocity should 
be greater the greater the intensity of the wave. 

1 Now we have just seen that in a straight cylindrical tube the 
intensity of the wave does not remain constant as has been hitherto 
supposed, but that it diminishes continually, and this the more rapidly 
the smaller is the section of the tube. The necessary consequence of 
this is that the rate of propagation of a wave in a tube ought con- 
tinually to diminish as the wave advances ; and this diminution should 
be the more rapid the smaller is the section of the tube. This is, in 
fact, what occurs in all of my experiments. I shall confine myself here 



578 



5/ 



ELLEN' OR THE 



to the discussion of the mean velocity of a wave produced by the dis- 
charge of a pistol, and which travels through dry air at o c C, such 
a wave being measured from its commencement up to the moment 
when it ceases to be of sufficient intensity to affect the membranes. I 
select from experiments made upon tubes of the diameters o - io8, 0*300 
and 1 .10 metre. 

'1VHE OF DIAMETER O.I08 METRE (ROUTE !>' IVUV). 



DISTANCES 






MEAN 


DISTANCES 


MEAN 


TRAVERSED 




VELOCITIES, V. 


TRAVERSED. 


VELOCITIES, V . 


Charge 


of PoW'der 


0.3 grin. 


Charge of Powder 0.4 'grm. 


Metres. 






Metres. 


Metres. 


Metres. 


566.74 






330-99 


135I-95 


329-35 


H334S 






3 2 8.77 


2703.OO 


328.20 


1700.22 






328.21 


4055.85 


326.77 


2266.96 






327.04 


5407.80 


323-34 


2833.70 






327.52 







■' The diminution of the mean velocity of one and the same wave 
reckoned from its origin, but which is examined after traversing longer 
and longer paths, is very marked.' 



" It would seem as if the fact that the sound was heard at one 
distance, and that the action upon the sensitive membrane took 
f>lace at another and very much greater distance, might have 
suggested that these were two different things. And -the truth 
or falsity of the undulatory theory can be tested right here. 
For if a pulse of air in a tube, and sound, are two entirely 
different things, a candle will be quenched or duck, whenever 
by usual mechanical means a pulse is started, but will not do it 
when no such pulse is started, no matter what sound happens 



WHISPERINGS OF AX OLD TINE 379 

at one end of the tube ; the only exception being when the 
candle has a normal vibration the same as that of the sound, 
which would not often occur. And therefore the experiment 
can be easily and satisfactorily made. 

"In Regnault and Biot's experiments, a pistol was used, 
the firing of which engenders gas, which of necessity starts 
a pulse or the theoretical sound wave. So, too, if a piston 
is pushed in the tube, a pulse will be started. In the first 
case, sound will also take place. In the latter it will not, 
though the pulse might be made to go and affect a sensi- 
tive membrane placed in its way, as far as or further than the 
pulse produced by the pistol of MM. Biot and Regnault. 

" Mr. Regnault, in the above experiments, found out a num- 
ber of self-evident truths, or truths that should have been self- 
evident to any scientist, — though they with one accord have 
refused to see them since they accepted the undulatory theories, 
— and became himself a wiser man; although, again, with the 
fatuity that follows believing by authority, he was unable to' 
perceive anything further than was illustrated by his experi- 
ments. Aild his experiments stopped short of the ultimate 
demonstration that this pulse in a tube acts as it does because 
of the tube, and, if taking place in the open air, would go a 
much shorter distance and have a very different speed. It 
would, in other words, follow mechanical laws and be almost 
immediately dissipated. 

"ThusW. R. Grove, in his celebrated work on 'The Cor- 
relation of Physical Forces,' says; 

•'If the hand be moved in uneonfined air, the motion of the air would 
not be sensible to a person at a few feet distance : but if a piston of the 



380 ELLEN OR THE 

same extent of surface as the hand be moved with the same rapidity in 
a tube, the blast of air may be distinctly felt at several yards distance. 
There is no greater absolute amount of motion in the air in the second 
than in the first case, but its direction is restrained, so as to make its 
means of detection more facile. By carrying on this restraint, as in the 
air gun, we get a power of directing the motion and of moving other 
bodies at far greater distances. The puff of air which would in the air 
gun project a bullet a quarter of a mile, if allowed to escape without its 
direction being restrained, as by the bursting of a bladder, would not be 
perceptible at a. yard distance, though the same absolute amount of 
motion be impressed on the surrounding air.' 

" But M. Regnault admits, first, that the results of his experi- 
ments disagreed with theory; that is, — with this undulatory 
theory which Ellen is combating; second, that they so dis- 
agreed in the following respects : 

"First. Gases deviate from Mariotte's law. But the formula 
for the speed of sound, as worked out by Newton and certain 
other later mathematicians, rests entirely upon the assumption 
that gases obey this law. 
• " Second. Elasticity is affected by surrounding objects. 

"Third. The gas itself, the air, for example, often moves 
bodily at the start instead of making slight oscillations as 
assumed in the theory. 

"Fourth. The Laplace formula for the increase of speed 
through the action of heat produced in the condensed waves, 
which that class of mathematicians who uphold authority have 
eagerly adopted, is not correct, and will have to be modified. 

"Fifth. The wave, instead of advancing throughout its 
course with uniform velocity, as has been explicitly taught in 
text books, constantly varies in its speed. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 381 

"Sixth. Instead of pulses started by different forces going 
at the same speed, every one of them goes at different speed, 
precisely as Ellen has said that they would and must. 

"Such a system of exposures of the postulates of science in 
one series of experiments might well make scientists thoughtful 
Had the experiments been continued, M. Regnault would 
have found, as some one yet will find, that sound, instead of 
being made by the pulse, is something entirely distinct from it, 
a thing of itself. That the pulse is entirely disconnected from 
sound is demonstrated by the fact that if made by a piston 
there is no sound, and further by the fact that when made by 
the explosion of a pistol it continues long after the sound has 
ceased. 

" A somewhat similar line of experiments made by Jacques, 
Ellen has already given. 

"Ellen has given the results of M. Regnault's discoveries, 
from his own standpoint of small experiment ; but rising above 
this to one of broad comprehension, it is clearly evident that the 
experiments, demonstrating the incorrectness of the hypotheses 
upon which undulatory theories are based, entirely disprove 
all such theories. 



■382 ELLEN" OR THE 



XXIV 



**IT follows, then, that because of the mobility of the air a 
* pulse will not behave at all in unconfined air as in a tube. 
A stick or any solid body pushed would behave practically the 
same in a tube or out of a tube. But all those bodies whose 
particles do not cohere, but are mobile, will behave very differ- 
ently. This is a fact that no one with common sense would 
think of overlooking, although scientists care so little for facts 
that they overlook it entirely. There could perhaps be no 
better illustration of the utter worthlessness of a great part, if 
not the larger part, of the science taught in our schools and 
colleges. It is simply and purely the vagaries of theorists who 
are without common sense or common honesty. 

"Mobility is the great distinction between solids and liquids, 
and because of it many things can be made out of liquids which 
cannot be made out of solids. And so, too, it is equally true 
that many things can be made out of solids which cannot be 
made out of fluids. Liquids are not good for building 
materials. 

" Herschel speaks of 'the extreme mobility which belongs 
only to the fluid state.' Laplace, in his ' Mecanique Celeste,' 
vol. i., book i., chap. 4, says: 

' To obtain the laws of the equilibrium of each of the particles 
of a fluid, it would be necessary to ascertain their figure, which is impos- 
sible ; but as these laws are required only for the fluids considered in a 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



.1 ° 3 



mass, the knowledge of the figure of the particles becomes useless. 
Whatever may be these figures, and the dispositions which result in the 
separate particles, all fluids, taken in a mass, must present the same 
phenomena, in their equilibrium, and in their motions ; so that the 
observations of these phenomena will not enable us to discover any- 
thing respecting the configuration of the particles of the fluid. These 
gene ?-al phenomena depend on the perfect mobility of the particles, which 
yield to the least pressure. This mobility is the characteristic property 
of fluids ; it distinguishes them from solid bodies, and serves to define 
thein. Hence it follows, that to maintain the equilibrium of a fluid 
mass, each particle ought to be held in equilibrium, by means of all 
the forces acting on it, and the pressure which it maintains from the 
surrounding particles.' 

" Because of this mobility, as Ellen has before remarked, the 
mere blow of any body moving at the rate of ten feet per 
second, or less, could not affect the air in front of it except a 
trifling way. 

"Of course a fan would drive and condense the air far more 
than the prong of a tuning fork or a stretched string, could ; 
and a whirlwind infinitely more than all of them, but the last 
can move only 1 50 feet per second. The old Pine mustn't 
forget that in all cases of sound the hypothetical air waves are 
supposed to be started by the air particles being pushed by 
some body, in exactly the same way as they are pushed by r a 
fan or any other body moving in air. The idea con- 
veyed by Mr. Tyndall and different text books that the 
fork is swiftly advancing is entirely untrue. And the sup- 
position held, perhapts, by many that the speed of hypo- 
thetical sound waves is in any way connected with the 



$86 ELLEN OR THE 

repeated vibrations of a fork or string is entirely erroneous. 
With the string each supposed wave must be caused by 
a single movement of the string. No second movement 
can in the slightest affect it. And this would be true, 
by this theory, usually with sound ; the condensed feature of 
the wave would be caused by the movement of anything. One 
movement of something and return, by the theory, makes the 
wave, and each succeeding movement and return makes another 
wave ; but the first wave is never overtaken or in any way 
interfered with by the second, or the second by the third. The 
same would be true of the fork, except for the double 
prong. The action of either prong might and probably would 
each time affect that of the other. 

"But this is all 'different in a tube. There by the shove of a 
piston a pulse is created in the confined air which is communi- 
cated through the tube, as it seems, almost instantly to the 
further end where, if tight, it is reflected ; but if open it is 
not reflected. Nor with an open tube or one of infinite length 
would there be any reactionary movement unless the piston 
were withdrawn. In the latter case elastic force can continue 
the motion in advance for a long distance, but in unconfined 
air it cannot because of the mobility of the air, which, as Ellen 
has before remarked, physicists rarely ever mention when 
talking about sound. 

"If elastic force acted in unconfined air as in air in a tube, 
every movement of air, with all its amplitude, would be propa- 
gated, with the speed of elastic force, for great distances, in all 
directions. And as a pulse sent through a tube will blow out a 
light at the further end, or, if large enough, knock down a man, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 387 

so there could never be any quiet air, but always pulses moving 
in all directions sufficient to overthrow everything existing. 
Ellen thinks it is pretty fortunate that the scientists are not per- 
mitted to run things. They would destroy us all in five minutes. 
For the law of pulses in tubes is that precisely the amount 
of air shoved by the piston is moved through the whole length 
of the tube and emitted at the open end. If unconfined air, 
when moved, acted in the same way, then a whirlwind, driven 
by elastic force, would extend around the world, destroying 
everything in its path. Awfully lucky the scientists, or 
physicists, or whatever they call themselves, don't run 
things." 

"Why yes," I said, "if they had the reins there would be a 
big smash-up, so quick that no one would ever know what 
occasioned it." 

"But if pulses in unconfined air do not form and act as in 
tubes, but instead behave in a much more civil and reasonable 
manner, because of the mobility of the air, — a quality provided 
expressly to prevent destruction and allow things to exist, — then 
this theory of sound, which has survived the conflicts of more 
than 2000 years, will survive no longer, but at last die and be 
quietly buried." 

"Yes," I said, "we will have a great funeral and all the 
scientists will attend and be the pall bearers." 

"The old Pine will see that the mobility of the air prevents 
all these accumulated troubles which the scientists are deter- 
mined to inflict upon us, and that it works most admirably, 
allowing peace, quiet, and tranquility to very generally pervade 
the earth, except when storms are introduced for clearing up 



ELLEN OR THE 

purposes, and these generally are not severe enough to do very 
much damage." 

"Yes," I answered, "the old Pine does see that everything 
is very wisely ordered ; that the conditions are altogether 
delightful, both for beauty and for comfort. For quiet gen- 
erally prevails, and all things are at peace. The pumpkins 
and the corn grow in the fields, and the apples upon the trees. 
In the universe there are things innumerable, but there is 
room for them all ; and, so far as the old Pine can see, room 
for more." 

"Yes," she said, "there is plenty of room. And it is upon 
those lines that the universe was built — room enough for all. 
For the room is husbanded ; it is husbanded so far as this, that 
a little will answer when there is not more. But there's enough 
for all practical purposes. For many things dwell in harmony, 
and do not incommode each other. And when they do, there 
is room enough for each, or for enough of each for the econ- 
omy of the universe. Thus, there's room enough for light, the 
particles of which are darting everywhere. But Ellen thinks 
they don't come any faster than they are wanted ; and the)' 
are not wanted so very fast. For the effect of light, — a ray of 
light, — lasts quite a long time, if measured by a short enough 
standard. And Ellen doesn't know why it might not be meas- 
ured by one standard as well as by another. Light will last and 
perform its functions the same as food or drink will, that we 
take into the body. Ellen doesn't think that the rays of light, 
or, more truthfully, particles of light, are at all continuous, 
but that vast spaces intervene between those that come 
from the sun, or the fixed stars. Thus, on the cars, in passing 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 



8 9 



through a covered bridge, one can see through the cracks 
of the boards all the landscape complete, although these 
cracks are but a very small part of the space, the remainder 
being entirely impervious to vision. Ellen has seen it esti- 
mated that rays of sunlight are at least 30,000 miles apart. 
And the old Pine can see that if they are they will go this 
distance in less than one-sixth of a second, going as they do, 
in a second, 185,000 miles, more or less. And therefore there 
is room enough for all these innumerable rays to be circulating 
in the universe. 

" And so there is plenty of room when we get away from 
the big universe down upon this little world of ours, with 
its lovely oceans and lakes, and the pretty mountains, and, 
above all these, the air, where the clouds are draped in heavy 
masses, or lightly gather, and the rainbows arrange them- 
selves, and the birds fly. In this air where Ellen wanders, 
and the old Pine sways; where millions and millions of 
insects and all kinds of winged animals are constantly pass- 
ing ; where clouds of dust frequently obscure the vision ; where 
the beautiful leaves, all the innumerable number of them, live 
and fall; where also, with all these things, are sounds; — there 
is room enough for all — lots of room. Nor do things interfere 
with each other much, but all have a beautiful time. 

"And thus the air is full of sounds, all kinds of sounds, little 
sounds and big sounds, sweet sounds and ugly sounds. They 
live and die like other things, being what the old Pine and 
Ellen would call very short lived. And so they pass each other 
like other things ; and as they all wander in every direction 
they are all the time passing each other, but being infinites- 



39° ELLEN OR THE 

imal there is generally plenty of room, just as there is for the 
insects, and the horses, and cows, and sheep to pass each other. 
" In this way do the sounds circulate; and in this way do all 
things move in the universe. At least they do down here in 
our little universe where we can see them. And there isn't 
any other way. There never was any other way. All nature's 
laws are universal ; and this is one of those laws. It's the way 
that things pass each other." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 391 



XXV. 



(( A ND how does sound operate in a telephone and grapho- 

-'■■ phone, Ellen?" I asked. 

"The best results," she answered, "are usually obtained 
in the Bell magneto electric telephone. Ganot says : 

'To the number of instruments depending on induction may be 
added the telephone, which is equally remarkable for the surprising char- 
acter of the results which it produces, and for the simplicity of the 
means by which they are produced. Fig. 19 represents a section of 
Graham Bell's telephone. 

' It consists essentially of a steel magnet, of about four inches in 
length by half an inch in diameter, enclosed in a wooden case. Round 
one end of this magnet is fitted a thin flat bobbin, BB, of fine insulated 
copper wire. For a magnet of this size a length of 250 metres of 
No. $8 wire, offering a resistance of 350 ohms, is well suited. 

'The ends of this coil pass through longitudinal holes, LL, in the 
case, and are connected with the binding screws CC. In front of the 
magnet, and at a distance which can be regulated by a screw, but which 
is something less than a millimetre [.03937 -(-of an inch], is the essential 
feature of the instrument, a diaphragm, D, of soft iron, not much 
thicker than a sheet of stout letter paper. This diaphragm is screwed 
down by the mouth-piece E, which is similar to, though somewhat 
larger than, that of a stethoscope. 

' The instruments are connected by wires, for one of which the earth 
maybe substituted, as in ordinary telegraphic communication (908). 
Each instrument can be used either as sender or receiver, though in 
actual practice it is more convenient for each operator to have two 



,92 



ELLEN OR THE 



telephones, one of which is held to the ear, while the other is used for 
speaking into ; the latter being larger and more powerful than the 
receiver. 

' The action of the instrument depends on the fact that whenever the 




Fig. 19. 

relative positions of a magnet and of a closed coil of wire are altered 
there is produced within the coil a current or currents of electricity. 




Fjir. 20. 



This may be illustrated by reference to fig. 20. When the magnet is 
suddenly brought into the coil, a current is produced in the coil in a 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 393 

particular direction. There is no current so long as the coil and the 
magnet are stationary. When however, the magnet is suddenly with- 
drawn, a current is produced in the opposite direction. Similar effects 
are produced if, while the magnet is in the coil, its magnetism is by any 
means increased or diminished. [In fig. 20 the instrument at the right 
is a galvanometer.] 

' Now in the telephone the magnet and the coil, when once properly 
adjusted, remain fixed. But the magnet M magnetizes by induction 
the soft iron membrane D. in front of it — that is, converts it into a 
magnet. When, by the mouthpiece being spoken into, this iron mem- 
brane vibrates backwards and forwards, these vibrations give rise to an 
alteration in the number of lines of magnetic induction passing through 
the coil, the effect of which is that currents are produced in alternate 
directions in the coil surrounding the pole. These alternating currents, 
being transmitted through the circuit to the distant coil, alternateh 
attract, and cease to attract, the corresponding diaphragm. They 
thereby put this in vibration, and when the mouthpiece of this tele- 
phone is held to the ear, these vibrations are perceived as sound 
corresponding to that which is transmitted. [By this theory the sound 
is not transmitted, but instead vibrations, which reproduce the sound. 
This error may be the fault of the translator.] Hence, whatever sound 
produces the vibration of the diaphragm of the sending instrument 
is repeated by that of the receiver. 

' The reproduction of the sound in the receiving instrument is perfect 
as far as articulation is concerned, but it is considerably enfeebled, as 
might be expected. The sound has something of a metallic character, 
appearing as if heard through a long length of tubing, while it faithfully 
reproduces the characteristics of the person speaking. It does not 
result from a series of sharp and distinct makes and breaks, but in each 
of the momentary currents there is a continuous rise and fall, corre- 
sponding in every gradation and inflection to the motion of the air agi- 
tated by the speaker. 



394 ELLEN OR THE 

' Various attempts have been made to improve the loudness of the 
sounds produced in the telephone, by varying the form of the various 
parts, and using more powerful magnets of horseshoe and circular 
forms ; Ader's telephone, which is largely used in France, is constructed 
with a circular horseshoe magnet. 

1 The amplitude of the vibration of the disc is extremely small. 

'The current in a telephone is estimated by De la Rue as not 
exceeding that which would be produced by one DanielFs cell in a 
circuit of copper wire 4 mm. in diameter of a length sufficient to go 
290 times round the earth. This current would have to pass 19 years 
through a voltameter, to produce 1 cc. of detonating gas. This is 
about 1,000 million times less than the currents in ordinary use. Such 
currents are, however, sufficient to cause the contraction of a frog's leg. 

' Siemens estimated that not more than 10 q o- of the mass of sound 
which the sender receives is produced. That it is possible to perceive 
this, is due to the great sensitiveness and range of the ear, which can 
endure the sound of a cannon at a distance of 5 yards, and still per- 
ceives it at a distance 10,000 times as great. This represents a ratio of 
intensities of one to one hundred millions. 

' The extreme delicacy of the telephone is its drawback to speaking 
through ordinary telegraph circuits. The currents in adjacent wires, 
the vibration of the posts and of the insulators, or the passage of a cart 
over the streets, acts by induction on the telephone circuit, and over- 
powers its indications. When a telephone circuit was placed at a 
distance of 20 metres from a well-insulated line, through which signals 
were sent by means of a battery of a few T elements, sounds were dis- 
tinctly heard in the telephone. Speaking under such circumstances is 
like speaking in a storm. The powerful currents used for systems of 
electric lighting produce such a roar in an adjacent telephone circuit 
that it is impossible to speak through the telephone. The only 
effective way of diminishing the inductive action of adjacent systems is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 395 

to have two insulated wires close to each other, forming a loop circuit. 
They are thus at the same distance from the inducing circuit, and as 
one of the wires is used for going and the other for returning, the. similar 
influences must be in opposite directions, and therefore neutralize 
each other. 

' Iron wires present a special difficulty in telephoning through long 
distances. Telephone circuits are alternating ones, and at each 
reversal an extra current is produced, which enfeebles the original 
one, and alters its. character. This extra current is more pronounced 
the longer the circuit, and with iron it is 300 times as strong as with 
copper. Hence for long distances a loop circuit of copper or bronze 
wire is used, and with such circuits it is possible to telephone through 
very long distances. In America, New York and Chicago, a distance of 
930 miles apart, are in telephonic communication ; the greatest distance 
in Europe is from London to Marseilles, via Paris. 

' If a telephone is inserted in the circuit of a Morse's instrument, the 
sound of the working is heard, and the messages can be read ; this is 
the case also of the telephone in the branch circuit of a Morse. If one 
telephone is joined up with the primary, and another with the secondary 
wire of an induction coil, communication is almost as good as if the two 
apparatus were directly united. 

'Telephones have been constructed in which the thin iron plate is 
replaced by a thicker one, or by an unmagnetic one ; or if the tele- 
phone is held close to the ear, the plate can be dispensed with alto- 
gether. 

* * -* * * * -:fr * 

'When a telephone is held to the ear during a thunderstorm, every 
lightning flash in the sky is simultaneously heard to be accompanied by 
a sharp crack. 

'Dolbear has constructed a telephone in which the electrostatic 
action of currents is used. It consists of two circular flat discs of metal 



39.6 ELLEN OR THE 

rigidly fixed to each other in an insulated case of ebonite. One of the 
discs is in metallic connection with the line wire, in which are a battery 
and an induction coil ; in this way, while one disc is electrified posi- 
tively, the other is negatively electrified by induction, and if the current 
is varied by speaking through a transmitter in the circuit their varying 
effects are faithfully reproduced, and reappear as sound vibrations on 
the receiver. 

' * * * When the wires of an electric circuit, in which is inter- 
posed a telephone, are broken, and rest loosely on each other, sounds 
produced near the point of contact are reproduced and magnified in 
the telephone. The microphone, invented by Prof. Hughes, depends 
on this fact ; its arrangement may be greatly varied ; one of the 
simplest and most convenient forms is that represented in fig. 21. A 
piece of thin wood is fitted vertically on a base of the same material; 
two small pieces of gas carbon about \ of an inch thick, are fixed 
horizontally in the upright ; they are in metallic connection with 
the wires of a circuit in which are a small battery and a tele- 
phone ; and in each of them is a cavity. A third piece, of the 
same material, and about one inch long, is pointed at each end, one 
of which rests in the lower cavity, while the other pivots loosely in 
the upper one. When a watch is placed on the base, its ticking 
is heard in the telephone with surprising loudness; the walking of 
a fly on the base suggests the stamping of a horse ; the scratching 
of a quill, the rustling of silk, the beating of the pulse, are perceived in 
the telephone at a distance of a hundred miles from the source of 
sound ; while a drop of water falling on the base has a loud crashing 
sound. To obtain the best results with a particular instrument, the 
position of the carbon must be carefully adjusted by trial ; and indeed 
the form of the instrument itself must be variously modified for the 
special object in view : in some cases great sensitiveness is required, in 
others great range. In order to eliminate as far as possible the effect 




Maple Grove, Warren. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 



399 



of accidental vibrations due to the supports, the base should rest on 
pieces of vulcanized tubing, or on wadding. 

'it is known that the compression of a semiconductor, such as 
carbon, diminishes its resistance, while a diminution in the compression 
increases the resistance. The action of the microphone is to be 
ascribed to this : in consequence of the minute alterations in the 
pressure and in the degree of contact at the break, the electrical resist- 




Fig. 21. 

ance in the circuit varies in accordance with the sound waves, and con- 
sequently the strength of the current varies too. The result of this is, 
that what we may call undulating currents of electricity are produced, 
whose amplitude, length, and form are in exact correspondence with 
the sound waves. The effect of the microphone is to act as a relay, 
drawing supplies of energy from the battery, which then appear in the 
telephone. 

'The form of the original microphone has been variously modified. 
It is desirable to increase the number of contacts, so as to avoid 
scratching noises. The Ader microphone consists of ten carbon rods 
laid in two sets of five each on three cross-pieces, also of carbon, fixed 
to the same piece of wood. Good results are also obtained by using 



400 ELLEN OR THE 

small fragments or filaments of carbon. One of the best microphones 
consists essentially of a thin plate of carbon resting on a packing of the 
filaments of incandescent lamps.' 

"In the fifth paragraph an explanation of the action of the 
telephone is attempted. In examining this question we have 
for data, first, that sounds made at a transmitter are heard 
almost instantly many miles away at the receiver; second, that 
only such sounds are heard over the wire, at the receiver, 
as are audible at the transmitter. Are the sounds heard at the 
receiver those made at the transmitter, or are they made by 
vibrations reproduced at the receiver? In either case, wher- 
ever made, sound remains equally an entity. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD l'INE 40I 



XXVI. 

^\A/^ W1 ^ now exammc ^ e explanation given by Mr. 
* * Ganot and universally accepted in science, that the 
sounds heard at the receiver are made by vibrations reproduced 
in its diaphragm or elsewhere, by the action of the electric cur- 
rent. Ellen says ' or elsewhere' because it is admitted that these 
sounds are sometimes heard when there is no diaphragm. The 
explanation formerly was that the diaphragm at the transmitter 
vibrated from the effect of air waves ; that the vibration 
strengthened and weakened the magnet, by which changes 
small electric currents were added to and subtracted from the 
constant current of electricity passing through the wire, the 
effect of which was to strengthen and weaken the magnet at the 
receiver, and thus reproduce vibrations in the diaphragm of the 
receiver precisely similar to those produced in the diaphragm 
of the transmitter ; and these similar vibrations were supposed 
to reproduce the sounds that were heard. 

"In the first hypothesis, were it true that the sounds were 
reproduced by the vibrations of the diaphragm of the receiving- 
instrument, it is not true that the vibrations of the diaphragm 
of the transmitter are made by air waves — that is, by the 
movement of particles of air. For the mere movement of 
air against the diaphragm of the transmitting instrument will 
not produce sound anywhere. Try a fan. It will move the 
diaphragm all right, make it vibrate and of course thus 



402 ELLEN OR THE 

strengthen and weaken the magnet, so as to increase and lessen 
the electric current and thus affect the magnet of the receiver 
and reproduce in the receiving diaphragm the vibrations of the 
transmitting diaphragm, if they can be so» reproduced ; but 
there will be no sound. The record of a graphophone may be 
made by sound or other mechanical means, which proves that 
sound causes vibration. For it is vibration which makes the 
record. If a megaphone is connected with a recorder, articu- 
late speech uttered many feet or even rods away will be 
strongly reproduced in the record. That there is no air wave 
connection here with the diaphragm of the recorder, can be 
proven by holding a lighted candle at the small end of the 
megaphone. The light is not stirred a particle, for the dis- 
tance is too great for the air waves to pass over. In the tele- 
phone, sound can be heard at the receiver only when sound is 
made at the transmitter. 

"If it is true that the diaphragm at the receiver reproduces 
the sounds by repeating the vibrations of the diaphragm at the 
transmitter, then the diaphragm at the transmitter should and 
must repeat the same sounds, articulate speech or otherwise. 
And this, because of its position nearer the original vibrating 
body, it must do as distinctly as the receiving diaphragm, if 
not with greater distinctness. This is a self-evident propo- 
sition, though Ellen has seen no mention of it by scientists. 
But if the diaphragm at the transmitter talks, the sound 
is completely extinguished by the original voice. And this 
may be true, for it is a law of sound as well as light that to a 
certain extent the larger drowns out the smaller. But this 
again, it would seem, must follow: If the transmitting dia- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 403 

phragm talks, every substance conducting sound reproduces 
sound, which would mean that all sound is constantly reproduc- 
ing itself. And this would be something similar to fire, which 
is constantly reproducing itself if it enters a new body that is 
combustible. 

"With light a mirror reflects images, but does not re-create 
them. And so a stove radiates heat, and the heat is something 
entirely distinct from the stove. And so sound is entirely dis- 
tinct from the diaphragm or sounding board, or any substance 
which reflects, radiates, conveys, or makes it. 

"Absorption, reflection, and radiation are three of nature's 
fundamental laws, and Ellen thinks they are universal ; that 
everything absorbs, reflects, and radiates. But everything does 
not absorb, reflect, and radiate everything, but only certain 
things. The sun radiates light and heat. It absorbs the 
material of which they are made ; and it has the immensity of 
space from which to absorb this material. The moon reflects 
both heat and light. A stove absorbs and radiates and perhaps 
through the action of heat makes more heat. The diaphragm, 
a tin box, or a sounding board conducts, makes, and radiates 
sound. For sound throws it into vibration, thus making- 
more sound ; but the vibration ceases instantly with the 
stream of sound which causes it. Whether, in a telephone, 
the diaphragm at the receiver is thrown into vibration by 
changes in the electric current, Ellen does not know. It is an 
unproven hypothesis, but the sound in this diaphragm is a part 
of the conflagration of sound started by the original sounding- 
body, whether it be kindled by direct contact with the stream of 
sound flowing from that body through the electric current, or 



404 ELLEN OR THE 

from a distance by the action of electricity. In either case it 
is sound that causes the sound. For, in it's origin, sound is 
always formed by the normal vibration of bodies ; but, having 
been started, it has the power of reproducing itself. 

"And thus we see that sound is a minute substance, 
spreading in all directions, which explains what Bacon calls the 
strangest secret of sound, — that sound exists in every par- 
ticle of the air as well as in all the air. But it thus exists in 
each portion of the air successively, and not in all the air at 
any one time; and this explains the nature of its passage 
through the air, and also suggests the manner of its existence. 

"That sound, unless continuous, takes place successively, 
that is, that it ceases at one point when heard at a more distant 
one, is a matter of universal experience. Thus, if we see at a 
distance the steam escaping from a whistle, we know that at 
the point where the sound is made it is heard when the steam 
begins to escape, and that it ceases at that point when the 
steam ceases to escape, though in each case it is heard by us 
later, the difference in time depending upon the distance. And 
we know that as it ceases at the point where it is started, 
so it continues to cease at each successive point until, like all 
things in nature, it has ceased to exist, being transformed into 
something else. 

"'Practical Telephony,' by James Bell, 1898, says: 

' M. Monadier made a large number of experiments with various 
kinds of discs, from which he concludes that telephones with iron discs 
are much louder than others, and that the effect is chiefly due to mag- 
netic induction. Copper and aluminum discs reproduce the timbre 
very much better than those of iron. Iron discs an inch thick reduce 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 405 

the intensity, but do not affect the clearness of speech. Discs made of 
thick pieces of lead, zinc, glass, and steel have also been tried, and all 
these substances act. Wood also reproduces the sound, and the 
intensity increases with its thickness up to one and one-half inches. 
A half-inch cork has been used, also an empty wooden box, also a 
razor-stone two inches thick. By dispensing with the disc and apply- 
ing the ear very close to the pole of the magnet a faint sound has been 
heard. Messrs. Edison, Blythe and Preece have also shown that sound 
may be reproduced, although the disc [at receiving telephone] is non- 
magnetic. Du Moncel tried water and mercury on the discs to prove 
whether the discs really vibrated at all or not. He was unable to dis- 
cover any signs of vibration even when luminous reflections were 
employed to detect them ; but the more sensitive photographer's plates 
have shown that vibrations are really produced in the disc of the 
receiving telephone. * * * 

' It has been found that a small flat box filled with coke, with two tin 
electrodes fixed to the ends, is one of the best arrangements for a 
microphone, and that even a single piece of cork will make a micro- 
phone capable of transmitting speech. The microphone can not only 
transmit speech, but it can also under certain conditions reproduce it, 
and consequently supply the place of the receiving telephone ; but 
experiments in this direction have not been very successful. A micro- 
phone composed of two pieces of lead pencil placed in a watch case, 
and connected by a piece of money, was exhibited at Rouen in 1878.' 

" It will be seen from the above that the theory of a repro- 
duction of vibrations in the receiving diaphragm by the 
action of the magnet, is at best but a partial explanation, as the 
sounds are heard with a diaphragm non-magnetic and hence 
supposed to be uninfluenced by the magnet. Whence, then, 
the sounds? To account for these it has been suggested, 
though not proven, that the magnet and coil vibrate. 



406 ELLEN OR THE 

<l It also appears, as in other accounts, that the vibrations of 
the diaphragm under ordinary, or even extraordinary condi- 
tions, are imperceptible. Against this is the statement, 
giving neither names, dates, or places, that the more sensitive 
photographers' plates have shown that vibrations are produced. 
Ellen has seen this same statement elsewhere, but always in 
this indefinite form. That is, it is the worst kind of hearsay 
evidence, which would not be admitted in law, although it 
would appear to be satisfactory to science. 

"Dr. S. P. Thompson on 'Magnetic Figures' in the 'Phil- 
osophical Magazine,' vol. 8, says: 

'Two further experiments seem to confirm the conclusion derived 
from the foregoing observations. If a compound diaphragm be used, 
consisting of concentric annuli of thin iron fixed to a stretched mem- 
brane of paper, or if a small iron disc thus fixed be employed, as in 
Bell's earliest experiment and in some of the experimental telephones 
of M. Niaudet, a curious timbre is thereby imported into the voices of 
speakers, though their enunciation is very distinct. A similar result is 
found to follow the employment of small thick diaphragms. In each 
of these cases the disposition favors the lamellar distribution of the 
magnetism. 

' If, however, a compound diaphragm be employed, consisting of a 
number of radial pieces similarly fastened to a stretched membrane, 
tones are well rendered, but enunciation is not distinct. This result is 
also obtained when the diaphragm of iron is too large in proportion to 
its thickness. In these cases the greater part of the magnetism is 
radially distributed. 

'Whenever a complete theory of the telephone is framed, these are 
points which must be taken into account,' 

"In 'The Problem of Human Life,' Mr. Hall says: 



WHISPERIN&S OF AX OLD PINE 407 

'Some of our greatest physical investigators do not hesitate to claim 
that even the more delicate telephonic effects produced through the 
Bell diaphragm can not be attributed to its mechanical or bodily vibra- 
tions toward and from the pole of the magnetized bar. The eminent 
Scotch physicist, R. M. Ferguson, Ph.D., F. R. S. E., distinctly takes 
this position in a lecture on the telephone recently delivered before the 
Royal Scottish Society of Arts, as copied into the ' Scientific American 
Supplement,' No. 120. 

'Dr. Ferguson shows, by the most convincing arguments, that the 
mechanical oscillation of this iron disc is wholly insufficient to account 
for some of the effects produced in the transmission of articulate speech ; 
though he admits that these bodily movements of the membrane 
add to the loudness and distinctness of the message. As a proof that 
but a portion of these effects can come from the vibratory motion of 
the transmitting membrane, he notes the fact that a solid iron plate, an 
inch thick, in place of the membrane, has produced distinct transmis- 
sions of speech, and that even the naked end of the magnetized bar has 
done the same thing without the intervention of any kind of diaphragm 
or plate. * * * In speaking of the common explanation of the 
telephone, as given by all writers on the subject, — that is, that the 
transmission of speech depends entirely upon the mechanical vibra- 
tion of the transmitting membrane, — the Doctor remarks : 

'•'This explanation is beautiful and simple, and one would wish it 
true ; it must always remain the popular one. Undoubtedly, however, 
when narrowly examined it is found to be a mere hypothesis, and to 
have as yet no experimental confirmation. * * I would, in the 

first place, take exception to the vibratory theory of Bell, viz., that it is 
the vibrations of the disc to and from the pole of the magnet, in excur- 
sions proportionate to the intensity, pitch, and quality of the vocat 
sounds, that electrically affect the instrument ; and in so doing I only 
express the dissatisfaction with it of almost every one who deals with 
the telephone." ' 



408 ELLEN OR THE 



XXVII. 

^HPHE following experiments, with a telephone, Ellen has 
* tried herself : 

" If one in talking places the mouth close to the mouth- 
piece of the transmitter, the sound will be much louder at the 
receiver but not so distinct. 

"The louder one talks at the transmitter the louder is the 
sound heard at the receiver, but the difference would appear to 
be not nearly so great at the receiver as it is where the sounds 
are made. And this probably comes from the difference in 
the intensity of sounds at the receiver and the transmitter. 
This difference is illustrated by the making of graphophone 
records. Experiments showed that the ordinary voice at the 
transmitter would not produce a graphophone record at the 
receiver, although a megaphone at the receiver was used to 
assist; but a graphophone record was made with a loud 
whisper spoken directly into the megaphone. The sound of 
a dinner bell rung loudly at the transmitter produced a grapho- 
phone record at the receiver, but not a loud one. In all these 
cases the transmitter was twelve miles distant from the receiver. 

"Two persons speaking at the same time near the trans- 
mitter could both be heard at the receiver. 

" In making a graphophone record it is equally true that 
many voices or sounds can be recorded at the same time. 

" In experiments with different diaphragms at the receiver 



p 5 ^ 




WHISPERINGS OF AN" OLD PINE 41 I 

it was found : First, that with a thin sheet iron tinned on the 
outside placed directly against the pole of the magnet, the 
conversation was plainly audible, not quite as loud but other- 
wise very like that heard with the usual diaphragm ; second, 
that with a pine diaphragm seven-eighths of an inch thick 
placed in the usual position of the diaphragm, sound was heard. 
With a spruce diaphragm one-third of an inch thick, 
it was also heard, but not quite as well. A twenty- 
penny nail held with the head against the poles of the magnet 
and the other end between the teeth, gave no sound when held 
stationary, but when the nail was moved so as to van' its 
contact with the magnet, sounds at the transmitter were 
plainly heard. This was one of the most remarkable experi- 
ments that Ellen tried. At times, whilst moving the nail, the 
words would be very distinct, and then would be entirely lost. 
One or two experiments in which the teeth were held against 
the poles of the magnet, gave no sound. A tuning fork E 
(320 vibrations), when sounded at the transmitter, was dis- 
tinctly heard at the receiver. 

"In the recent Bell instrument what is called a microphone 
is used ; it is without a diaphragm, and gives better 
results than did the old transmitter with diaphragm. In this 
microphone transmitter there is, as we have seen, no magnet, 
but an arrangement of carbon rods forming a part of the 
circuit through which the current of electricity passes, one 
of which rods is very susceptible to movement, and by this 
movement influences the current of electricity by varying the 
resistance to its passage. In this case the varying force of 
the electric current caused by the loose contact of carbon is 



41- ELLEN OR THE 

generally supposed to strengthen and weaken the magnet of 
the receiver, and thus as before cause the diaphragm at the 
receiver to vibrate and reproduce the sounds. 
, "There is this distinction in the supposed results obtained 
with these two transmitters : in the one duplicate vibrations of 
a diaphragm are supposed to be produced at the receiver; in 
the other duplicate vibrations of pieces of carbon. 

" In either case or in any case where vibrations are repro- 
duced at the receiver, it is certain that if any sounds are made 
by them they must first be made by the vibrating body at the 
transmitter; that is, by the body whose vibrations are repro- 
duced. For nothing can be more certain than that if a trans- 
mitting diaphragm does not make sound the repeating of 
its vibrations by another similar diaphragm will not make 
sound. And so if the vibration of carbon rods or anything else 
at the transmitter does not produce sound, the reproduction of 
these vibrations at the receiver will not produce sound. 

"The following paper upon the 'Transmission of Sound by 
Loose Electrical Contact' was read before the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh by James Blythe, M. A., July 27, 1879: 

' In a paper published in the Transactions of this Society for Session 
1877-78,1 described an experiment which showed that if a moder-. 
ately strong current such as that from four or five Bunsen cells be led 
through two jam-pots filled with fragments of carbon, and if any sound 
be uttered strongly in the one jam-pot it will be reproduced distinctly, 
although faintly, in the other. In this experiment it has been found 
that the fragments of carbon may be replaced by any kind of loose 
contact, such as microphones, or a handful of screw-nails put into each 
jam-pot, or vibrating springs beating against metallic stops, or nails laid 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 413 

across each other in log-hut fashion, and that in each rase an effect 
similar in kind, although it may be differing greatly in degree, is pro- 
duced. Hence it may be almost laid down as a general experimental 
result, that if an electric circuit conveying a tolerably strong current 
contain two places of loose contact, A and B, and if any sound be pro- 
duced loud enough at A a similar sound will be heard proceeding 
from B. 

'To all appearance this phenomenon can only arise from the altered 
resistance produced at A by the sound waves, and it becomes a problem 
to explain how this altered resistance at A so affects the materials in 
contact at B as to make them give forth waves which convey a similar 
sound to the ear. No satisfactory solution of this problem has as yet 
been given, and it was in hopes of getting some information on the sub- 
ject that I made the following experiments. 

' Experiment i. — Four strong Bunsen cells were included in the cir- 
cuit, and the loose contacts A and B placed in different rooms, so that 
the sound uttered at A could not be directly heard at B. (Throughout 
we shall understand by A the sending, and B the receiving station.) In 
order to make the alteration of resistance at A as great as possible, 
an actual make-and-break was there inserted. A toothed wheel driven 
round against a spring or any one of the ordinary loud-sounding auto- 
matic kinds would do ; but what served my purpose best in this experi- 
ment was made in the following way : One of the terminal wires of 
the circuit was firmly attached to a tin can and the other to a common 
round file. A hole was then pierced through the bottom of the can at 
its center, and the file driven backwards and forwards in the hole as if 
for the purpose of making it larger. At the receiving end B a precisely 
similar can and file were used, and the file allowed to rest lightly in the 
hole. Every to-and-fro rasp of the file at A was distinctly heard at B ; 
even when the can was at some distance from the ear. The same 
sound was heard when the file at A was laid against any part of the 



414 ELLEN OR THE 

can, but most loudly when it happened to be against a corner or other 
sharp edge. It was remarkable also, that the sound was heard dis- 
tinctly even when the file did not touch the can at all, but was merely 
laid against the wire attached to it, so as to complete the electric cir- 
cuit without including the can in it. It would seem from this that 
some mechanical tremor is set up at the loose contact of the file with 
the wire which is transmitted along the wire to the can. As a variety 
of this experiment, I removed the can from the wire, and substituted in 
its place a poker, having the circuit wire firmly attached to its point. 
When the other end of the poker was put to the ear, and the file 
applied to the poker at any point, the sound of the distant rasping was 
distinctly heard. The same was the case when a long brass tube was 
substituted for the poker, all which very strongly suggests the idea of 
a mechanical tremor transmitted through the metal from the point of 
loose contact. 

'Experiment 2. — In this experiment a common automatic make-and- 
break, consisting of a vibrating spring worked by a small electro-magnet, 
was introduced into the circuit at A, and a similar spring, only without 
the electro-magnet, at B. At B the sound of the vibrations of the 
springs at A was so distinctly heard, as to at once suggest the idea that 
the spring at B was itself vibrating. However, I was unable to detect 
any such vibration, either with the aid of a microscope, or by attaching 
a small polished bead to the spring and observing in it the reflection of 
a light. Still it would be rash, I think, to assert that such vibrations 
were not present, and it is possible that, by more refined experimental 
means, they may yet be manifest. It was very noticeable in this 
experiment that the sound at B got less and less loud as the pressure 
on the vibrating spring was increased, until it ceased altogether when 
the contact was made perfectly tight. 

* Experiment 3. — The sound from the poker in Experiment 1 was so 
like that produced by the Trevelyan rocker, that it immediate]}' sug- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 41 5 

gested the employment of that apparatus as the loose contact at B. 
For this purpose the current was led through the lead block, the rocker, 
and a brass plate, on which the ball at the end of the rocker rested. 
When this was done, and the make-and-break set agoing at A, a dis- 
tinct sound was heard at B, suggesting very strongly the idea that the 
rocker was in actual vibratory motion. To test this in some measure, I 
heated the rocker and laid it on the lead block, when two sounds were 
distinctly heard, one due to the make-and-break, and the other to the 
heat effect. The one did not seem in the least to interfere with the 
other. Still farther to test the idea of actual vibration, it occurred to 
me to try if one rocker could not be made to act as the make-and- 
break to agitate the other. For this purpose two precisely similar 
rockers were taken, consisting of two long 'flat files. These were put 
edgewise on the lead blocks, with their tails resting on the edges of 
three-cornered files. The current was sent through the rockers by 
means of these lead blocks and three-cornered files. One of these 
rockers was placed at A along with the automatic make-and-break, 
while the other was placed at B. An arrangement was provided 
whereby the make-and-break could be at any moment shunted out of 
the circuit without interrupting the current. The make-and-break was 
then started, and having ascertained that the rockers at A and B were 
both sounding, the make-and-break was shunted off in hopes of hearing 
A and B still continuing to sound from the one acting as make-and- 
break to the other. These hopes, however, were doomed to disap- 
pointment, as, after many trials, I failed to hear any sound after the 
shunt was made. 

'Experiment 4. — Being still not satisfied that there was not an 
actual vibration at B in these experiments, I determined to test for it 
in another way. This time I took a tin can and riveted into the center 
of its bottom a pointed piece of steel wire. The can was fixed to a 
wooden board, and an arrangement made whereby another pointed 



41 6 ELLEN OR THE 

piece of steel wire could be moved up opposite to the former- piece., 
and as close to it as might be desired. The current was now led 
through the can and these pieces of steel, and the make-and-break 
started as usual, when very minute to-and-fro vibrations of the can 
were observable, especially when the steel points were not pressing hard 
against each other but loosely in contact, so that little .sparks could be 
seen between them. To make perfectly certain of this observation, I 
hope to repeat the experiment with still greater care. 

' From this experiment, notwithstanding the negative evidence of the 
others, it seems not unlikely that when a strong interrupted current is 
sent through a circuit where there is a loose contact, more or less of an 
actual separation of the surfaces there takes place, so as to make some- 
thing of a make-and-break similar to the original make-and-break 
which causes the interrupted current. Should this suggestion be estab- 
lished, it will follow that it is something of the same kind, but only 
differing in degree, which sends the undulatory currents which transmit 
musical sounds and articulate speech from any form of microphone 
transmitter to a similar form of microphone receiver. 

'As to the cause or causes of this separation of the surface at the 
loose contact B, or of whatever agitation else it may be which gives 
forth the sound, it is impossible in the present state of knowledge to 
speak with confidence. I am inclined, however, to look for one cause 
at least in that produced by the current at the loose contact. There 
the resistance and, in consequence, the rise of temperature produced 
by the current is greatest, and an effect similar to the Trevelyan rocker 
will be set up, although immensely smaller in amount. 

' Experiment 5. — This experiment has reference to the sounds heard 
in a telephone by means of a microphone transmitter. It is well 
known that these can be heard with a very weak battery in the circuit, 
and even with no battery at all, provided the points of the microphone 
carbon be a little moist. I -find that sounds can be heard in the tele- 






WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 417 

phone without a battery, and with the carbons apparently quite dry, if 
we rub the carbons hard together. This rubbing is distinctly heard, and 
it seems that it must arise in part at least from thermo-electric currents 
produced by the friction. That such are produced is readily shown by 
attaching two wires to the terminals of a Thomson's reflecting galvano- 
meter, and to the ends of these wires any two conducting substances. 
When these substances are rubbed against each other the movements of 
the spot of light clearly indicate the production of currents. T have 
roughly tested these currents, and find that they are stronger in pro- 
portion as the metals rubbed are wider apart on the thermo-electric 
-rale : but 1 have found no two substances, even of the same kind, 
which do not give them slightly. It is just possible, however, that such 
currents may not be wholly thermo-electric, but that some may be due, 
as I mentioned in a recent paper to the society, to the currents sug- 
gested by Sir William Thomson as the cause of friction.' 

"All of which is suggestive that sound may pass through 
and be carried by the electric current, in which case to the 
-peed of sound would be adeled that of the electric current, the 
same as when sound passes through air the speed of the wind- 
is added. 

" Sound is distributed radially in all directions, usually only 
by the air. But if solid bodies come in contact with the sound- 
ing body" the}' are also used for carrying away the sounds. 

"To illustrate, let us vibrate a tuning fork. The contin- 
uance of its vibration is supposed to be due to elastic force. 
The result of its vibration is sound. And however the sound 
: s caused it spreads radially into the air. But if the end 
of the fork is placed upon a table or board, the sound is both 
rapidly conducted from the fork and radiated into the air. 
And so if this end is placed against any solid bod}', the sound 



41 8 ELLEN OR THE 

is conducted more or less quickly, and generally also more or 
less of it passes to the air. Again arises the question whether 
by vibration the solid body conducting manufactures more 
sound. Bearing upon this, Ellen finds in ' Silliman's Journal,' 
vol. 105, page 125, the statement of Prof. A. M. Mayer on the 
'Experimental Determination of Relative Intensity of Sound,' 
as follows : 

' In the Smithsonian Report for 1857 will be found an account of 
very interesting and valuable experiments by Prof. J. Henry, bearing on 
"Acoustics Applied to Public Buildings." In these investigations Prof. 
Henry determined the relative powers of various substances to reflect, 
transmit and absorb sonorous vibrations, by placing on the bodies the 
foot of a tuning fork, and comparing the duration of its sound when 
thus placed with that given when the fork was suspended in the free air 
by a fine cambric thread. Thus suspended the fork vibrated during 
252 seconds. Placed on a large thin pine board its vibrations lasted 
about 10 seconds. In this case "the shortness of duration was com- 
pensated for by the greater intensity of effect produced." The fork 
having been placed successively on a marble slab, a solid brick wall, and 
on a wall of lath and plaster its vibrations lasted respectively 115, 88 
and 18 seconds. Placed on a cube of india-rubber, the sound emitted 
by the fork was scarcely greater than when it was suspended from the 
cambric thread, but its duration was only 40 seconds. What became 
of the impulses lost by the tuning fork ? They were neither transmitted 
through the rubber nor given off to the air in form of sound ; but prob- 
ably produced a change in the matter of the rubber or were changed to 
heat, or both.' 

"Ellen has seen no explanation by scientists why the 
vibrations of the fork should be thus differently affected. 
These experiments, if they are correct, and there could hardly 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 419 

be a more reliable experimenter than Mr. Henry, prove that 
this is not because of the resistance of these bodies. For con- 
tact with marble or brick, if this was the cause, should obstruct 
the fork as much as or more than contact with the board. 
And therefore, if these experiments are correctly reported, the 
stoppage of vibration in the fork is not principally due to 
resistance of the body in contact. It must then be due to 
the conducting away from the fork of the force or forces which 
keep it in vibration. But it is sound that is conducted away, 
and therefore it must be sound that causes the vibrations. 
And this, that sound causes the vibrations, as Ellen thinks, is 
the great secret of sound, explaining all its phenomena, includ- 
ing the remarkable one of sympathetic vibration never before 
explained. For it is evident that whatever would cause one 
body to vibrate, should make vibrate all bodies having the same 
normal vibration. 

"A condition similar to this spoken of by Mr. Henry is con- 
nected with the telephone. Thus 'The Dynamic Theory,' by- 
James B. Alexander, page 1026, says: 

c Dr. Konig showed that if the diaphragm be removed and a tuning 
fork set in vibration near the end of the magnet, the disturbance of the 
lines of force took place the same as with the vibratory disc, and a fork 
of the same pitch or differing by octaves, when placed near the magnet 
of the receiving instrument whose disc was also removed, took up the 
vibration and gave its fundamental sound. Moreover, if the circuit be 
broken so that the vibration of the fork does not set up currents, it will 
continue to vibrate a much longer time than with the circuit closed.' 

"This may be explained by the fact that when the circuit is 
closed currents of electricity are produced by the vibration of 



420 ELLEN OR THE 

the fork which tend to stop its action. Thus a dynamo requires 
much more power to turn it on its axis when it generates elec- 
tricity than when it does not. Or the sound may be conducted 
from the fork and carried through the electric current." 

"And does Ellen think that sound can make vibration 3.nd 
vibration sound ? " 

'■' She thinks that sound can make vibration and vibration 
define the character of sound. Thus from a bank of cloud 
falls rain, hail, or snow, but the character of the drops or of the 
pretty snowflakes, which have a million different forms and all 
of them as perfect, beautiful, and wonderful as that of a tree, is 
determined by temperature. But each one comes from a 
similar bank of cloud. And they 

' Fall as the leaves fall when Summer is ended.' 

"And here where the old Pine and Ellen are, they are 
every bit as plenty as sounds, and, as Ellen thinks, just as 
wonderful in their conformations. And thus great clouds of 
sound are formed within bodies by pressure, and its char- 
acter is defined by vibration. Thus air, if properly confined, 
may vibrate synchronously with any sound. And so, as 
Ellen thinks, the material of which sounds are made is always 
the same, produced by shock or pressure, and the character 
of all sounds is defined by vibration. 

" Similarly, as Ellen has quoted, Mr. Newton suggested that 
the action of electric bodies was due to an elastic fluid, and the 
emission of it to the vibrator) 7 motion of the parts of the excited 
bodies.* 

* See p. 192, Part II. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 423 

" But Ellen will give the old Pine more direct proof. A 
graphophonc record is made by sound. But all graphophonc 
records are made by vibration, and therefore vibration is made 
by sound. So the action of the graphophonc record can only 
be explained by the fact that vibration makes sound. And 
therefore it is equally true that sound makes vibration and 
vibration sound. And thus again are illustrated nature's great 
circulatory methods ; the oak produces the acorn and the 
acorn the oak. 

"This great principle, that vibration is made by sound, is 
illustrated again in the operations of resonance. For air may 
resound to all sound, and so different bodies of air to the same 
sound. By experiments in resonance it may be demonstrated, 
not only that sound makes vibration, for resonance comes from 
vibration made by sound, but also that it takes a particular 
amount of sound to make a particular vibration. Thus take a 
tumbler, (a larger vessel perhaps would do better), and partly 
cover its opening so that when a vibrating fork is held over this 
opening the loudest resonance is obtained. Changing now the 
capacity of air in the vessel by pouring in water, good results 
of resonance may still be got from the remaining column of air, 
and by the same fork, but the opening must be lessened, and 
by repeated experiments it becomes evident that for best 
results the opening must be proportional to the column of air 
to be set in vibration; and this means that a fixed amount of 
sound is necessary for the purposes of resonance — always a 
fixed amount, and that amount proportional to the column of 
air which is to be set in vibration. 

"And thus again is demonstrated the great secret of sound 



424 ELLEN OR THE 

— that sound makes vibration. And it is further demonstrated 
that there is a proportion between the vibration made and the 
sound that makes it." 

"And does sound make all vibration?" I asked. 

"Ellen cannot see," she answered, "why it does not, if the 
meaning of vibration is restricted to its more legitimate use. 
Indeed, it would appear to be very certain that it does. For it 
is demonstrated that in many cases it makes vibration ; and 
this demonstration is as exact as that an acorn comes from an 
oak and an oak from an acorn. That is, it is beyond ques- 
tion ; none can dispute or doubt it. But if sound causes 
vibration anywhere, it is very difficult if not impossible to see 
why it should not everywhere. And as a matter of fact, so far 
as we know, it does everywhere. For always when there is 
sound there is a tremor, but tremor is vibration. Besides 
nature does not use unnecessary causes. It is demonstrated 
by the graphophone record that sound is capable of producing 
all the different kinds of vibration. Then there is no occasion 
for any other cause, and so, as Ellen thinks, this is the only 
cause, at least the first cause. 

"Ellen does not undertake to describe the whole process of 
the manufacture of vibration, only to say that it is accomplished 
by sound, and that sound, in order to accomplish it, must be 
a material thing, with force enough to move the particles of 
bodies, if not bodies themselves. If it move the particles of 
bodies, elastic force may move them back, thus completing 
their vibration. 

" But all shock creates sound, as friction does electricity. 
And therefore, as Ellen has before told the old Pine, sound is 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 425 

everywhere and always taking place. But with sound follows 
vibration. Hence vibration is one of the most essential features 
of the machinery of the universe, regulating and creating the 
sounds of the universe. 

" Ellen thinks it is very amusing how scientists have spent so 
much time in showing how waves, like those formed upon the 
surface of still water when a stone is thrown into it, are formed 
in the body of air and, themselves impossible, perform a 
series of impossible feats which completely eclipse the per- 
formances of Mother Goose, as the cow jumping over the 
moon, or the dish running after the spoon ; or of old 
Mother Hubbard who went to the cupboard to get her poor dog 
a bone. For the shelves of the scientists, so far as undulatory 
theories reach, and they reach a good way, are as bare as 
Mother Hubbard's cupboard, not a bone of truth on the whole 
of them. 

"It is indeed a pitiful sight to see such an infinite mess 
of ignorance paraded in all the schools and colleges of the 
world. Thousands of scientists teaching that effects can take 
place without causes, that the universe is created regardless 
of law or system, and that fluids may be used for constructive 
purposes the same as solids. As Ellen thinks, all such 
assumptions are the quintessence of idiocy. For any hypoth- 
esis which assumes the impossible is without warrant and 
without excuse. Nor is it possible to see how anyone could 
be better fitted as an instructor in ignorance, than to reach 
the condition of deliberately teaching that black is white 
and white black ; that you can gather figs from thistles or 
thistles from figs ; that you can build cities or construct high- 



426 ELLEN OR THE 

ways of fluids ; or, what is the same thing, that the correlative 
without of sensation, as a tree, or rock, or flower, may be made 
of gases or fluids, in their unchanged state; which means that 
nature's laws are not universal, equally binding everywhere in 
her great domain, but spasmodic and changeable. That kind 
of ignorance, misnamed science, Ellen has no use for, but only 
such science as recognizes the fixed conditions and substantial 
character of all things in the universe ; recognizes that the laws 
which control it work with perfect accuracy throughout its 
whole extent, that among these laws is the supremacy of 
intelligence, which not only makes but controls and keeps in 
order everything, and without which it would be impossible 
for anything to exist. 

" And Ellen would call the old Pine's attention to the fact 
that it is the same scientists who forget the principle of 
mobility in fluids, who are also unable to comprehend the 
necessity of intelligence in creation. And this is as might 
be expected, for mobility is the distinguishing principle of 
fluids, and he who could overlook this, has demonstrated his 
incapacity to properly consider any kindred subject. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 427 



XXVI II. 

(( r I ^HE following experiments, reported by Mr. Tyndall, 
* illustrate further the remarkable action of sounding 
boards : 



'The transmission of musical sounds through solid bodies is also 
capable of easy and agreeable illustration. Before you is a wooden rod, 
thirty feet long, passing from the table through a window in the ceiling, 
into the open air above. The lower end of the rod rests upon a 
wooden tray, to which the musical vibrations of a body applied to the 
upper end of the rod are to be transferred. An assistant is above, with 
a tuning fork in his hand. He strikes the fork against a pad ; it 
vibrates, but you hear nothing. He now applies the stem of the fork 
to the end of the rod, and instantly the wooden tfay upon the table is 
rendered musical. The pitch of the sound, moreover, is exactly that 
of the tuning fork ; the wood has been passive as regards pitch, trans- 
mitting the precise vibrations imparted to it without any alteration. 
With another fork a note of another pitch is obtained. Thus fifty forks 
might be employed instead of two, and 300 feet of wood instead of 
thirty ; the rod would transmit the precise vibrations imparted to it, 
and no other. 

' We are now prepared to appreciate an extremely beautiful experi- 
ment, for which we are indebted to Sir Charles Wheatstone. In a 
room underneath this, and separated from it by two floors, is a piano. 
Through the two floors passes a tin tube two and one-half inches in 
diameter, and along the axis of this tube passes a rod of deal, the end 
of which emerges from the floor in front of the lecture table. The rod 
is clasped by India rubber bands, which entirely close the tin tube. 



428 ELLEN OR THE 

The lower end of the rod rests upon the sound board of the piano, its 
upper end being exposed before you. An artist is at this moment 
engaged at the instrument, but you hear no sound. When, however, a 
violin is placed upon the end of the rod, the instrument becomes 
instantly musical, not, however, with the vibrations of its own strings, 
but with those of the piano. When the violin is removed, the sound 
ceases ; putting in its place a guitar, the music revives. For the violin 
and guitar we may substitute a plain wooden tray, which is also 
rendered musical. Here, finally, is a harp, against the sound board of 
which the end of the deal rod is caused to press ; every note of the 
piano is reproduced before you. On lifting the harp so as to break the 
connection with the piano, the sound vanishes ; but the moment the 
sound board is caused to press upon the rod the music is restored, 
The sound of the piano so far resembles that of the harp that it is hard 
to resist the impression that the music you hear is that of the latter 
instrument. An uneducated ear might well believe that witchcraft or 
" spiritualism " is concerned in the production of this music' 

"It will be seen that the violin, or guitar, or wooden tray 
would seem to perform precisely the same office in these experi- 
ments that a diaphragm does in a telephone. 

" Ellen tried the following experiments with sounding boards : 
She placed the stem of a vibrating tuning fork upon a sound- 
ing board. She then took a small spruce rod about one foot 
in length and having a cross section about one-half by one- 
fourth inch. She held one end between her teeth, and let the 
other approach very near but not touch the sounding board. 
No sound was heard through the stick; but when one end 
of the stick rested upon the sounding board, the sound was 
immediately conducted by the stick and teeth to the audi- 
tory nerve. Ellen now placed two and then three vibrating 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 429 

forks upon the sounding board, plainly hearing and distin- 
guishing the three by the stick and teeth when the stick 
rested upon the sounding board. Then she put a small 
nail in one end of the stick, filed it to a point and placed 
the point upon the sounding board. The sound of the 
three forks was plainly heard and distinguished as before. 
She then fastened a pin, smaller and sharper than the nail, 
in another similar stick, and placed the point lightly upon 
the sounding board. The sound of the three forks was again 
plainly distinguishable but less loud, evidently because of the 
smaller dimensions of the pin point and pin. She then tried 
a third stick with a fine cambric needle smaller and sharper 
than the pin, and placed the point of the needle lightly upon 
the board. All the sounds were again plainly heard, but still 
less loud, and it was evident, first, that no sound passed through 
the stick unless it or the needle came in contact with the sound- 
ing board ; second, that although a small needle was sufficient 
to carry all the sounds from the sounding board to the stick, 
the amount of sound thus carried was proportional to the size 
of such needle. This is similar to the action of electricity con- 
ducted through a wire. In all cases it made no appreciable 
difference in the sound upon what part of the sounding board 
the needle was placed. And this shows that sounds spread in 
all directions upon a sounding board, as they do in the air." 

"And the graphophone, Ellen," I asked, " how is the record 
made in that?" 

"It is made upon a hollow cylinder of paraffine and wax 
by a small glass instrument called a stylus, one end of which is 
fastened to a circular diaphragm of glass, the other resting upon 



430 ELLEN OR THE 

. the cylinder. This cylinder is rotated by clock-work, whilst at 
the same time the stylus is moved longitudinally, and thus 
cuts a spiral groove in the paramne and wax. If, now, sound 
is conducted against the diaphragm, by a megaphone or other- 
Wise, it causes the diaphragm to vibrate, when the stylus 
fastened to it also vibrates and thus indents the record into the 
paramne and wax." 

"And how is this record reproduced? " 

"By a glass bead of about the same size as the stylus, and 
fastened to a similar diaphragm, passing over this record, with 
similar movement of machinery; for this reproduces the vibra- 
tions, and they reproduce the sounds. And these can be 
reproduced many times in the same manner, showing that the 
record is firmly held by the material upon which it is im- 
printed. This means that the record is an instrument capable 
of being played upon, like any other instrument. And thus 
we see that sound manufactures the record and the record 
manufactures sound. And so the tree manufactures the seed 
and the seed manufactures the tree. 

"The first instrument of this kind was called the phono- 
graph, and was invented by Edison in 1877. ^ n tms instru- 
ment the record was made upon tin foil, an inelastic substance 
that would retain it, but not nearly as well as the paramne and 
wax, and in the reproduced sounds was a nasal twang." 

"But," I said, "if several sounds take place at the same 
time, as when a band plays, or a chorus sings, what, then, is the 
operation of the diaphragm?" 

" Its operation then would be a resultant one, from all the 
forces which make it vibrate. And the sounds reproduced 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 43 1 

thereby, as Ellen thinks, would be the combined result or com- 
mingling of such sound. For the stylus, fastened to the dia- 
phragm, of necessity must vibrate as that vibrates, thus 
impressing- the sound upon the wax. 

"And this shows to Ellen that the music which we hear a 
band play or an orchestra sing, is a combination, of which the 
mind is able to distinguish certain parts, just as it is often able 
to distinguish certain odors or flavors where a number of them 
are combined. And again this teaches Ellen that the material 
from which sound is made is, or at least may be, entirely dis- 
tinct from the mill that makes it. The mill that makes it is 
vibration ; that is, it is something that vibrates, and this some- 
thing may be any thing, but naturally a thing has but one 
manner of vibration, and hence of its own movement can make 
but one sound. If, however, there is any power which can 
make it vibrate differently, it may make a different sound." 

"Then," I said, "it might make all sounds?" 

"Yes," she said, "if it could make all vibrations. And this 
principle is very generally illustrated in the things made by 
man. For it is immaterial whether a factor}' is built of wood, 
or brick, or stone, or any other material of a suitable quality. 
And so it may be immaterial whether the machinery is com- 
posed of one substance or another, provided it will do its work 
equally well. If steel wire is turned into pins of a fixed shape 
and finish, the pins will be the same whatever may be the differ- 
ences of the buildings in which they arc made, or of the 
machinery that makes them. And so it would be with every- 
thing in nature or in art; for, as Ellen has often told the old 
Pine, the laws governing are the same in each. 



432 ELLEN OR THE 

" But the old Pine should see that certain things are better 
adapted than others to certain purposes. And, conversely, 
there are many purposes that it would be impossible to use 
certain things for. And thus we find that there are some 
things that are not a bit good for the making of sound. 
Cotton is one of them, and india rubber one, and there are 
doubtless many more, but Ellen cannot stop to think them 
up ; but they are generally, as she thinks, of that kind called 
inelastic." 

"But if such an instrument can be made which will repro- 
duce all sounds," I asked, "what part do the normal vibrations 
of bodies play in this great drama of sound?" 

"A part," she replied, "that is essentially necessary to the 
result. For in no way could the copy be made except by 
these bodies. Thus the proportions of an organ, a drum, a 
fife, and all instruments are necessary for the production of 
the sounds to which they give rise. And so the wonderful 
organs of speech of man, and the vocal organs of all animals, 
are absolutely essential to the production of the various 
sounds which they make ; but when once the copy is made 
it can be repeated. For sound can make sound ; or, as in the 
graphophone, it can make a record which can reproduce the 
original sound. But otherwise sound can be produced only 
by the normal vibration of bodies, and a particular sound by 
the normal vibration of a particular body. And thus it is 
that sound makes sound, all sound, so far as it extends ; each 
particular sound its own sound, the sound itself being infini- 
tesimal particles thrown off or rising from bodies like 
' The moon on the lake, or the mist o'er the brae.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 435 

"Ellen thinks in all the arrangements of nature there are 
few things, if any, more wonderful or remarkable than this. 
Everything is brought into use for the manufacture of sound; 
nor docs it seem to incommode it at all for other purposes." 

"But certain things arc made especially to make sound, are 
they not, Ellen?" I asked. 

"Yes," she said; "things are made especially for this pur- 
pose, as the organs of speech. And so man is very ingenious 
in making sound-producing instruments. For thus man is 
always copying after nature, following the same laws. The 
old Pine cannot be too particular in remembering this fact, for 
it is the key to all knowledge ; and if properly used it may yet 
unlock to us the knowledge of all material things. 



43 6 ELLEN OR THE 



XXIX. 

^TN examining a great subject like this of sound, the most 
* comprehensive way is to begin with the fundamental condi- 
tions: We know that in the organization of nature there 
is nothing unnecessary. This is expressed in the 'Principia,' in 
Mr. Newton's first rule of Reasoning in Philosophy, as follows: 

' We are to admit no more causes of natural things, than such as are 
both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. To this purpose 
the philosophers say, that nature does nothing in vain, and more is in 
vain, when less will serve. For nature is pleased with simplicity, and 
affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.' 

"And therefore it is certain that all the machinery of speech 
and of sound which exists is necessary for its production. 
What, then, is this machinery, and how is it necessary? A 
part of it consists in what is called the normal or fundamental 
vibration of bodies. It is thus, as Ellen has said, that we get 
the sound of each particular instrument and thing ; nor is it 
possible that such a sound can be got without the existence of 
such an instrument or thing. Hence, all things in the universe 
are necessary for the production of all its sounds. 

"In order to still better perceive what happens in sound, let 
us consider the laws that have to do with the manufacture and 
distribution of things. And in the first place the old Pine must 
know that all things arc made by machinery. For it would be 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 437 

impossible for things to come into existence without a 
cause. First, then, always is the machinery, or cause, by 
which things are made, and always in this material universe 
this machinery is material. For everything, as Ellen has fre- 
quently told the old Pine, is composed of this wonderful thing, 
matter, whose possibilities for results would seem to be limitless. 
For from it is constructed equally the large and the small, 
the beautiful and the plain, the sweet and the sour, the 
pleasant and the disagreeable, the healthful and the poisonous, 
the fragrant and the odorless, the boisterous and the still. 

"Here is our first knowledge; and the second is the manner 
of production, that all these things are made from this matter 
by one and only one method or law, — that of its combination 
in different elements and different proportions. We start, then, 
with this knowledge that all things are made from matter, 
and that their differences arise from differences in the combina- 
tion of matter. 

"Then come the places of manufacture and the laws of dis- 
tribution. Things are variously distributed. Some things, as 
the air or earth or water, are distributed very widely, and 
others, as different families or species of animals and plants, in 
more limited spaces. And so a particular rain-storm or snow- 
storm is limited in its extent. 

"Not only, too, are things made in different ways, but the 
shops where they are made arc differently placed. Some are- 
fixed and cannot be moved. There are many things, some of 
which are widely spread, which arc made at stationary mills. 
Seeds are thus made, and they are scattered in many different 
ways, though always in some form carried, for they cannot 



43^ ELLEN OR THE 

walk or run as Ellen can. But there maybe a great many- 
different factories for their manufacture, placed at a great many- 
different points. Odors, too, are so made, and are carried or 
move for a certain distance. 

"Other things are made by moving mills, as rain or snow or 
hail. And these things themselves, after being produced, do 
not move about as much, for it isn't necessary. The snow- 
flakes sail about some, but the rain drops come pretty straight 
down. But the clouds move and distribute the rain and the 
snow where they are needed, so that they may accomplish the 
purposes for which they are made. For Ellen has told the old 
Pine before that there is nothing made except for a purpose. 
The old Pine will see that either of these systems of distribu- 
tion may be used. 

"In certain cases the mills of production are close 
together and in others quite a distance apart. Where they 
are close together the things produced naturally do not 
extend or spread far, for it isn't necessary. There are no 
other methods for manufacture and distribution, but in sound 
is this peculiarity, that one mill starting starts others, or rather 
makes temporary mills of other bodies whilst it is itself in 
operation. There are millions of the original mills, an awful lot 
of them, for nearly all things are capable of being turned into 
a factory of sound. And their machinery is made so that it 
can be varied instantly, in many ways, and every mill pours out 
the sounds all complete, including each one its pitch, intensity, 
and character." 

"But how would Ellen account for the echoes?" I asked. 

"By reflection," she said. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLt) PINE 439 

"And would there not be the same objection that Ellen 
found with the reflection of waves?" 

"Not at all," she replied. "The difficulty then was, and it 
was fatal to the theory, that waves constituted the correlative 
without of sound. And they could be reflected only in reverse 
or broken form, when the correlative would be destroyed, and 
with it the sound. But in this theory the reflection would be 
of a solid substance, subject to the laws of reflection." 

" And how does Ellen explain the speed?" 

" That it is inherent. For a substance may be imagined 
which carries its own energy. Or, as Ellen thinks, motion, 
being an attribute of matter, varies as other attributes. Thus, 
some bodies are far more elastic than others, some harder, 
some more dense, and others more porous. And so, as Ellen 
thinks, this quality of motion varies, but enters into the compo- 
sition of all matter, as illustrated by the final disintegration 
of matter. But in all of these qualities the difference is that 
between extremes, and may therefore be very great. Thus in 
elasticity it is from the extremely elastic to the inelastic. 
Hardness varies from the very hard to the soft. And so, in the 
quality of motion, conditions exist so marked in their action 
that matter would seem to be rather a property of energy, 
than energy of matter. This is not at all the condition of 
sound. And yet, as Ellen thinks, its speed is one of its 
properties." 

"It is thus in the kinetic theory of gases that particles are 
supposed to move, is it not, Ellen?" I asked. 

" Ellen does not care to be responsible for the kinetic theory 
of gases," she replied, "and so must refer the old Pine to the 



440 ELLEN OR THE 

scientists for an answer to this question or others regarding it. 
An animal may be supposed to control its speed. A 
locomotive may maintain practically the same rate of speed 
for some time, though finally left to itself, the force driving it 
being expended, it will gradually stop. Motion, constant, rapid, 
and long continued, would appear to be the characteristic of 
radiant matter, and sound belongs to this class of matter. 
Light, electricity, heat, are other members of the class, all 
notably endowed with a power of speed that, certainly for a 
time, is both constant and remarkable. 

''And so sound moves with a speed of uniform character, 
but at different rates, according to the path over which 
it moves. 

" Sound, then, like everything else, is an entity, made out of 
matter by the universal law of a combination of its elements in 
certain proportions. 

11 This entity is furnished in great quantities and great 
variety. In this respect it is similar to other things furnished 
by nature, as the different varieties of trees and plants, or the 
different varieties of animals or insects, or those of stones or 
shells. 

" These varieties of sound, as well as of trees, or plants, or 
animals, or insects, or stones, or shells, are the material forms 
of sensations; and, as such, include in their forms every 
possible change or variety which the soul is capable of 
receiving from the phenomena of sound. And as always, if 
the material form of sensation, as of a tree, or plant, or shelf, 
or flower, is injured in the slightest degree, the sensation pro- 
duced by it will be similarly injured ; so if the material form of 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 441 

sound is injured, the sensation from it will be similarly incom- 
plete. And thus it is that the soul distinguishes the character 
of speech, its intonations and inflections. And thus, too, it is 
evident that the matter from which sound is formed, although 
in its nature short-lived, has, while it lasts, a wonderful tenacity 
of form." 

"But, Ellen," I asked, "do not the different sensations of 
sound, or flavor, or odor, come from the quality rather than 
the form of the material used?" 

"Ellen thinks the old Pine's question a very proper one," she 
said. "The present theory assumes the sensation of sound to 
be the result of a certain dimension of air wave, including- the 
idea that if supposed waves interfered with each other in a cer- 
tain manner, there would be silence, and if they interfered in a 
certain different manner, the sound would be doubled ; though 
if asked why in either case such result would follow, the scien- 
tists could no more answer than tell the distance of the furthest 
fixed star. Nor can they give any intelligent reason why any 
such result should follow. The whole conception is one of 
ignorance and as stupid as it is possible to conceive. It is 
akin to that ancient conception that the world was set upon 
pillars, and the pillars rested upon a tortoise's back. 

"Our knowledge is that all sensations arise from material 
conditions. Those of sight would appear to depend directly 
upon form. And to this extent that it is impossible to have 
any material conditions without form ; all sensations depend 
upon form. But it would appear that quality rather than 
quantity is the immediate cause of the sensations of sound, 
odor, taste, and touch. And yet we see that many things 



442 ELLEN OR THE 

which yield the sensation of taste, or odor, as peaches, and 
oranges, and apples, and plums, and cherries, and all fruits 
and all vegetables, not only have form, but a particular form, 
and each its own form, just as much as the pretty snow 
flakes that cover Ellen's hat up in winter, and cover all the 
country up. And the different kinds of these fruits have a 
different kind of form, as well as a different kind of color, for 
that is the way things are made. The old Pine supposes that 
they might be made some other way?" 

"No," I said, "the old Pine is entirely satisfied with the way 
that things are made." 

"Well," she said, "they are all made that way. There is no 
other way, and, as Ellen thinks, no other possible way; cer- 
tainly no other so good way. For form is limit, and limit is 
design. Form, then, is universal, for all things have it. And 
as the works of nature- are very finished, Ellen thinks that all 
causes of sensations are very finished, the unseen equally with 
the seen, those creating sound, odor, and taste, as well as those 
producing sight. 

" It is, too, as Ellen thinks, another universal law that effects 
vary with amounts. This, then, follows, that increased effect 
comes from increased amount of the substance which causes it. 
But, as Ellen thinks, it would be impossible to increase amounts 
without changing form. Nor does she think that a precisely 
similar effect from any substance could be produced, except 
with a precisely similar amount of that substance, and that, 
therefore, whether form is or is not directly the cause of the 
sensation of sound, flavor, odor, or any other sensation, it is 
inseparably connected with it." 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 445 

"But what is the history, Ellen," I asked, "of the theories of 
sound? Has this undulatory theory been universally accepted 
since Mr. Newton's day?" 

"Not at all," she replied. "A number of eminent men have 
questioned it, but the old Pine will see that after such a theory 
has been intrenched behind vested property interests in text 
books and teaching, it becomes doubly difficult to get rid 
of it. 

"Ellen understands that the theory was questioned shortly 
after its announcement by Mr. Newton. In 1799 the French 
naturalist and scientist, Lamarck, read a memoir on sound of 
perhaps a hundred pages, at a meeting of noted scientists in 
Paris, in which he claimed that since sound passed through 
solid bodies as well as through gases, and since it was impos- 
sible for air to enter such solid bodies, sound was made by the 
peculiar jostle or thrust of an exceedingly subtle substance 
which readily permeates all or nearly all substances. This 
substance he thought was the ether which Newton supposed to 
exist in all bodies. 

"Following Mr. Lamarck's ideas, the following definition of 
sound appears in Reese's Encyclopaedia : 

' Sound originates in the percussion and vibration of the parts of an 
elastic substance and is transmitted by means of the elasticity of the 
air or of some other more subtle medium of a similar kind.' 

"In 'Inquiries Concerning Sound,' by Paroletti, in 'Journal 
d' Phisique,' the author says: 

'Sound is propagated by infinitely small vibrations, according to the 
theory of M. De la Grange, and it is probable that this takes place 



446 ELLEN OR THE 

in the particles of a very light, elastic fluid of a peculiar nature and 
which should not be confounded with the gases that compose what wc 
know as the atmosphere.' 

"About 1825 the present theory was again questioned by- 
Sir G. S. McKcnzie, Vice-President of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh. In the paper read Mr. McKenzie expressed the 
opinion that sound is an entity, as follows: 

'It is a groundless expectation that man is ever to arrive in the 
progress of discovery at the nature or essence of anything. With 
respect to sound, therefore, we can do no more than attend to the 
immediate causes of its production, and to the laws which it obeys in 
its diffusion. In the present state of our knowledge concerning it, 
philosophers appear to have entirely rejected the idea of its being a 
thing sui generis, as light and heat, and to have become content with 
the rather unsatisfactory conclusion of its being mere mechanical 
action. Such a conclusion, however, does not afford sufficient ground 
for altogether ceasing to observe the phenomena of sound, and the cir- 
cumstances under which it is made known to the sense of hearing. 

' The analogy between sound and light has been noted as remarkable, 
and. as light and heat have been admitted to be distinct entities, and as 
they have distinct organs of sense (the eye and the skin), appointed to 
them ; and as taste and smell are also made known by motion, and 
contact with distinct organs ; and as there is a distinct organ appro- 
priated to sound, there is no reason why it should not be regarded also 
as a distinct entity, although hitherto our observation has not been 
extended far enough to show that it is such.' 

tl Numerous other writers have since questioned the undula- 
tory theory, prominent among them the Rev. A. W. Hall of New 
York, a Methodist clergyman and a man of unusual natural 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 447 

abilities. Mr. Hall, in 'The Problem of Human Life/ abund- 
antly disproved the correctness of such a theory, and, like Mr. 
McKenzie, considered sound an entity. Ellen will close this 
part of the discussion with several quotations, and first from 
an excellent article entitled ' On the Identity of Light, Heat, 
Electricity, Magnetism, and Gravitation,' by J. Goodman, M.D., 
M. R. C. S., published in the ' Memoirs of the Literary and 
Philosophical Society of Manchester' (1852) : 

'From the difference of temperature of bodies, — the facility with 
which we can increase the temperature of a cold body by the opposition 
of one already heated, and of cooling the latter also by the same con- 
tact, — and from the laws of transmission, diffusion, radiation, ignition 
coction, fusion, and volatilization, by this force ; — I cannot in spite of 
all modern theories upon the subject and the teaching of the schools 
draw any other conclusion than that this force is a bond fide imponder- 
able existence, possessing the ordinary qualities of matter, locality, exten- 
sion, impenetrability, resistance, attraction, motion ; and, as I believe is 
shown in the following experiments, momentum also — a property hith- 
erto applied alone to ponderable matter. That heat possesses the three 
former properties is not objected to by philosophers, inasmuch as it is not 
contended that it enters into the substance of the atoms or elementary 
particles of matter, and occupies with matter the same space at the 
same time, but simply is described as filling the interstices between 
these elementary particles. It is also as capable of transmission from 
one substance to another, as water when poured from vessel to vessel. 
It is to a certain extent capable of accumulation and retention, without 
renewal, like other fluids in nature ; we find that the retention of these 
latter is of very short duration if left to evaporate, uncovered and unpro- 
tected, or in contact with leaky or porous substances. 

' There is therefore reasonable ground for concluding, that, as every 



44< S ELLEN OR THE 

known substance. in nature is more or less porous to the calorific fluid, 
if caloric could be as effectually surrounded by substances incapable of 
its transmission as the liquids in daily use can be, we should be able to 
preserve it at any degree of intensity, and that without addition, for any 
protracted period. 

i But it is manifest that whatever may be the teaching of the schools 
with regard to the nature of caloric — they all practically denominate it 
not as a mere mode of action or the result of motion among the par- 
ticles of matter — but as a bond fide and genuine substance and as 
endowed with all the powers and qualities usually attributed to real 
material existences. 

' The facts that appear to me especially unanswerable, bearing against 
modern theory, are, that if one were to admit for the sake of argument 
that caloric is generated by friction, why does not the effect cease when 
the cause is discontinued? Why does it not cease to exist when friction 
ceases? Or else, why is not caloric daily and hourly accumulating? 
How is it that when by such heat generated we have kindled a fire, 
which might also be admitted to depend for its development on motion 
of a chemical nature occurring among its own particles, — how is it that 
by this same fire, once produced, we can communicate a certain degree 
of redness or white heat to a piece of iron or other substance, without 
producing any motion among its particles, and with this heated metal 
we can communicate warmth to the air, ignite a second fire, or boil 
water, which shall absorb just the exact amount of heat lost by the 
heated iron, and shall ultimately be able to retain this communicated 
caloric for a considerable period? 

1 1 think that heat is shown, by these and other facts, to have an inde- 
pendent existence, so far as our present ideas of entity and non-entity 
extend. 

' Again, if caloric were admitted to be the mere creation of matter, 
how is it that the other imponderable forces, which are by many phi- 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 449 

losophers admitted as convertible into caloric, and vice versa, are not by 
them also assigned to the same origin and the same mode of existence ? 

' It has already been shown by the labors of Dr. Wollaston, Dr. Far- 
aday, and the author of this paper, that the ordinary electric and voltaic- 
forces are identical ; and many years ago the analogy of aerial electricity, 
or lightning, was sufficiently demonstrated by the experiments of Dr. 
Franklin. 

'The reciprocal influence and mutual dependence of these forces 
along with magnetism, and the obedience of electricity to some of the 
laws of magnetism, and vice versa, as well as the analogy of the phe- 
nomena manifested by all these forces, evince their identity. In illus- 
tration of the identity of electricity with magnetism, I read a paper 
before the British Association in 1842, in which it was shown that a 
plate of glass maintained in a constant polar condition by the simple 
current from the ordinary electrical machine, sustained the weight of 
5 ounces and 20 grains ; showing that frictional electricity itself, when 
placed in a condition resembling magnetism — or rather electro-mag- 
netism — will produce with them an equivalent effect proportionate to 
its inferior quantity and powers. 

'With regard to the identity of light and heat — forces which I hold 
to be so far identical as to be in their common acceptation simply the 
essential qualities of the one subtle force under investigation — I refer 
to the experimental labors of M. Melloni and Prof. Draper. 

'We have therefore deficient only one link in the chain of identity 
among all these imponderable forces, and that link is the identity of the 
force light or heat, with electricity. I have already shown that there 
are many points of analogy between voltaic electricity and the caloric 
force. Each of these forces is found occupying the interior or so-called 
interstitial space of the elements of bodies, they are the admitted agents 
which operate upon the elementary particles or atoms of matter,'"" 

* This is not true of the other forces. See report of British Association, 1S42. 



45° ELLEN OR THE 

and are possessed of essential qualities common to both, which are 
exhibited in all their luminiferous and calorific phenomena. 

'It is this link which I believe is discovered and supplied by the fol- 
lowing experiments [with the galvanometer].' 

"Ellen will omit the experiments, as now the substantial 
identity of light, heat, and electricity is admitted. 

' The results of these experiments evince to my mind more than ever 
the unity of force. On every hand experimental evidence appears to 
justify the conclusion that there is one universal force in nature, which 
is modified by the accidental and varied conditions to which it is sub- 
ject, but that its essential nature and characteristics are at all times the 
same, and evince in every modification constantly the same unchang- 
able qualities, which are discoverable by man under the denomination 
of sensations, as well as luminous and calorific properties. 

'I believe that these experiments indicate and indeed prove the 
identity of caloric and voltaic force and that now the last required link 
for the completion of the entire chain of identity of these imponderable 
forces is obtained.' 

" Mr. Herbert in his work, ' Modern Realism Examined,' says : 

' And all the evidence accumulated tends to extricate us from the 
unintelligible and baffling conceptions of imponderable agents, subtle 
fluids, and occult principles working in ways wholly unfamiliar to us, 
and to substitute for them the movements of infinitesimal particles or 
molecules, regulated by the same laws of mechanical action which 
masses of matter appreciable by our senses obey.' 

" So Mr. Justice Grove teaches: 

' I believe the day is approaching when the two fundamental con- 
ceptions of matter and motion will be found sufficient to explain 
physical phenomena.' 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINK 451 



XXX. 



^ FALLEN will now recapitulate in part. It lias been shown 

*—' that the undulatory theory of sound never had any 
foundation, being built upon an unproven hypothesis. And it 
has been demonstrated to be impossible in these respects : 

"First. Mathematically. 

" Second. Such a system of air waves as those supposed 
could not exist, because of the mobility of the air. Therefore 
the material representation of sound would be impossible, 
without which there can be no sensation. 

'•Third. Echoes would be impossible. 

"Fourth. The action of the megaphone or ear trumpet is 
unexplainable and would be impossible. 

" Fifth. The uniform speed of sound cannot be explained. 
For by the theory, as tested by experiment, all sounds should 
have different speed and vary constant!}* in their speed. 

"Sixth. Waves of air or particles- of air, however moved, 
are altogether insufficient to explain the record of a grapho- 
phone or the action of a telephone. 

"Seventh. It would be impossible for sounds to pass each 
other. 

'•Eighth. The undulatory part explains nothing, and 
teaches nothing. 

"These are among the objections to the theory, and any 
one of them is fatal. But above them all is the fundamental 



452 ELLEN OR THE 

objection that the theory is subversive of the greatest of nature's 
physical laws, that by which things are made. 

"Conversely, Ellen has shown that sound is a sub- 
stance so infinitesimal in size that it can enter most if not 
all visible bodies; that its character is defined by vibration, 
that it is the cause of vibration, and made by vibration ; 
that it dissipates itself in all directions through bodies 
in contact, causing each as it enters it to vibrate and thus 
reproduce more sound of the same quality. In this way it 
continues until the measure of its life is finished, thus causing 
the sound to exist in every particle of the air as well as in 
all the air, which Mr. Bacon thought the ' strangest secret of 
sound,' and which again would be entirely impossible under 
the undulatory theory ; for this supposes the character belong- 
ing to every voice to consist of the motions of the air particles 
of the hypothetical waves, some of which are over four feet 
in length. 

"Mr. Huxley, one of the ablest of the scientists of the past 
century, if not the ablest, in 'Lectures on the Origin of 
Species,' page 140, says: 

' Every hypothesis is bound to explain, or at any rate not to be incon- 
sistent with, the whole of the facts it professes to account for ; and if 
there is a single one of these facts which can he shown to be incon- 
sistent with (I do not merely mean inexplicable by, but contrary to) 
the hypothesis, such hypothesis falls to the ground — it is worth 
nothing. One fact with which it is positively inconsistent is worth as 
much, and is as powerful in negativing the hypothesis, as five hundred.' 

"This undulatory theory explains none of the facts and is 
inconsistent with all, whilst, on the contrary, the entity theory 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE 453 

explains all and is inconsistent with none. For the entity theory 
explains echoes by the usual laws of the reflection of bodies. 
The correlative of sound is complete as a tree is complete, 
because it is made so. The action of the megaphone and ear 
trumpet is precisely what it must be with sound an entity per- 
vading the air, for the megaphone gathers it and conducts it as 
it would rain drops or any other substance. The speed of 
sound is inherent and varies with the substance it is passing- 
through ; just as a stone falling in water and air moves with 
different speed. And this, indeed, is a very general law of 
nature. The record of a graphophone and the action of a 
telephone are both intelligently and full)- explained. The 
enigma of sounds passing each other is fully explained ; for 
they pass each other as all other things in nature, because 
there is room, or when there is room." 

" It follows that the whole undulatory theory of sound has 
been entirely discredited. And with it of course fall all undu- 
latory theories, and we sec that by one system only, and that 
a substantial one, all things are made. 

" This is what common sense and our experience tell us must 
be true. For the universality of nature's laws, that is, the prin- 
ciple of order, alone makes possible nature's wonderful works. 
Without it there could be no creation. Without it all success- 
ful result is impossible. Ellen can see that scientists under 
bad leadership might blunder into the idea that there was no 
system, and tongue-tied by authority, for some time wander in 
the paths of ignorance, but so mistaken a conception cannot 
last. The clouds will surely break and the magnificent 
splendor of the creation, in whose system there is no variable- 



454 ELLEN OR THE 

ness or shadow of turning, be made manifest to all, proclaiming 
the infinite wisdom and love ; the infinite wisdom and power of 
Him who lias both designed and created the whole, and 
without whose knowledge not a sparrow falls to the ground. 

"Ellen will close this visit with quotations from 'Life and 
Letters of Faraday/ vol. I , page 308, and an article on ' Radiant 
Matter,' by William Crookes, inventor of the Crookes radiom- 
eters. In this last Ellen will not vouch for the counting, but 
written from a scientific standpoint it suggests the infinite num- 
ber of molecules that are supposed to be hidden from our 
sight. But the entity sound is smaller than these, for it passes 
readily through those bodies which particles of air cannot 
enter. Mr. Faraday says: 

• 1 may now notice a curious progression in physical properties 
accompanying changes of form, and which is perhaps sufficient to 
Induce, in the inventive and sanguine philosopher, a considerable 
degree of belief in the association of the radiant form with the others 
in the set of changes I have mentioned. 

* As we ascend from the solid to the fluid and gaseous states, physi- 
cal properties diminish in number and variety, each state losing some 
of those which belonged to the preceding state. When solids are con- 
verted into fluids, all the varieties of hardness and softness are neces- 
sarily lost. Crystalline and other shapes are destroyed. Opacity, and 
color frequently give way to a colorless transparency, and a general 
mobility of particles is conferred. 

4 Passing onward to the gaseous state, still more of the evident char- 
acters of bodies are annihilated. The immense differences in their 
weight almost disappear ; the remains of difference in color that were 
left are lost. T ransparency becomes universal, and they are all elastic. 
They now form but one set of substances, and the varieties of density, 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINM 455 

hardness, opacity, color, elasticity, and form, which render the number 
of solids and fluids almost 'infinite, are now supplied by a few slight 
variations in weight, and some unimportant shades of color. 

"To those, therefore, who admit the radiant form of matter, no difti- 
culty exists in the simplicity of the properties it possesses, but rather 
an argument in their favor. These persons show you a gradual resigna- 
tion of properties in the matter we can appreciate as the matter 
ascends in the scale of forms, and they would be surprised if that effect 
were to cease at the gaseous state. They point out the greater exer- 
tions which nature makes at each step of the change, and think that, 
consistently, it ought to be greatest in the passage from the gaseous 
to the radiant form.' 

"This is in very refreshing contrast to the usual parrot-like 
talk of scientists on these subjects. Mr. Crookes says : 

' It may be objected that it is hardly consistent to attach primary 
importance to the presence of matte?', when I have taken extraordinary 
pains to remove as much matter as possible from these bulbs and these 
tubes, and have succeeded so far as to leave only about the one mil- 
lionth of an atmosphere in them. At its ordinary pressure the atmos- 
phere is not very dense, and its recognition as a constituent of the 
world of matter is quite a modern notion. It would seem that when 
divided by a million, so little matter will necessarilv be left that we 
may justifiably neglect the trifling residue, and apply the term vacuum 
to space from which the air has been so nearly removed. To do so, 
however, would be a great error, attributable to our limited iaculties 
being unable to grasp high numbers. It is generally taken for granted 
that when a number is divided by a million the quotient must neces- 
sarily be small, whereas it may happen that the original number is so 
large that its division by a million seems to make little impression on 
it. According to the best authorities, a bulb of the size of the one 



45 6 ELLEN OR THE 

before you (13.5 centimetres in diameter) contains more than 1,000000,- 
000000,000000,000000 (a quadrillion) molecules. Now, when exhausted 
to a millionth of an atmosphere we shall still have a trillion molecules 
left in the bulb — a number quite sufficient to justify me in speaking of 
the residue as matter. 

' To suggest some idea of this vast number, I take the exhausted 
bulb, and perforate it by a spark from the induction-coil. The spark 
produces a hole of microscopical fineness, yet sufficient to allow mole- 
cules to penetrate and to destroy the vacuum. The inrush of air 
impinges against the vanes and sets them rotating after the manner of 
a windmill. Let us suppose the molecules to be of such a size that, at 
every second of time, a hundred million could enter. How long, think 
you, would it take for this small vessel to get full of air? An hour? 
A day? A year? A century? Nay, almost an eternity! — a time so 
enormous that imagination itself can not grasp the reality. Supposing 
this exhausted glass bulb, indued with indestructibility, had been 
pierced at the birth of the solar system ; supposing it to have been 
present when the earth was without form and void ; supposing it to 
have borne witness to all the stupendous changes evolved during the 
full cycles of geologic time, to have seen the first living creature appear 
and the last man disappear; supposing it to survive until the fulfill- 
ment of the mathematicians' prediction that the sun, the source of 
energy, four million centuries from its formation will ultimately become 
a, burned out cinder ;•* supposing all this — at the rate of filling I have 
ju,st described, one hundred million molecules a second — this little bulb 
even then would scarcely have admitted its full quadrillion of molecules, f 

* The possible duration of the sun from formation to extinction lias been variously 
estimated by different authorities at from eighteen million years to four hundred mil- 
lion years. For the purpose of this illustration I have taken the highest estimate. 

f According to Mr. Johnstone Stoney (" Philosophical Magazine," vol. xxxvi., p. 
141), 1 c. c. of air contains about 1000,000000,000000,000000 molecules. There- 
fore, a bulk 13.5 centims. diameter contains 13.5 3 X 0.5236 X 1000,000000,000000,- 
000000 or 1,288252,350000,000000,000000 molecules of air at the ordinary pressure. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN' OLD PINE 457 

'But what will you say if I tell you that all these molecules, this 
quadrillion of molecules, will enter through the microscopic hole before 
vou leave this room? The hole being unaltered in size, the number of 
molecules undiminished, this apparent paradox can only be explained 
by again supposing the size of the molecules to be diminished almost 
infinitely — so that, instead of entering at the rate of one hundred 
millions every second, they troop in at a rate of something like three 
hundred trillions a second ! I have done the sum, but figures when 
they mount so high cease to have any meaning, and such calculations 
are as futile as trying to count the drops in the ocean. 

' In studying this fourth state of matter, or radiant matter, we have 
seen that, in some of its properties it is as material as this table, while 
in other properties it almost assumes the character of radiant energy. 
We have actually touched the border-land where matter and force seem 
to merge into one another, the shadowy realm between known and 
unknown, which for me has always had peculiar temptations. I ven- 
ture to think that the greatest scientific problems of the future will find 
their solution in this border-land, and even beyond ; here, it seems to 
me, lie ultimate realities, subtile, far-reaching, wonderful. 

' " Yet all these were, when no man did them know, 
Yet have from wisest ages hidden beene ; 
And later times thinges more unknowne shall show. 
Why then should witlesse man so much misweene, 
That nothing is, but that which he hath seene ? " ' " 

Therefore the bulk, when exhausted to the millionth of an atmosphere, contains 
1,288252,350000,000000 molecules, leaving 1,288251,061747,650000,000000 mole- 
cules to enter through the perforation. At the rate of 100,000000 molecules a 
second, the time required for them all to enter will be — 

12882,510617,476500 seconds, or 
214,708510,291275 minutes, or 

367^475^ 7 l S 21 hours > or 

149103,132147 days, or 

408,501731 years. 



458 ELLEN OR THE 

She arose as she finished. 

"Ellen has more than fulfilled her promises," she said, "in 
discussing with the old Pine this undulatory theory of sound. 
The undulatory theory of light is, if possible, more intolerably- 
stupid than that of sound ; but it will not be necessary for Ellen 
to discuss that with the old Pine. For all the undulatory 
theories will fall together, and the great physical truths of 
nature be finally established on a firm and consistent basis. 
So that when Ellen comes again she can talk upon subjects far 
more interesting and instructive." 

She raised her eyes to me, filled with love. 

"The beautiful Ellen," I said, "whose whole life is a mission 
for good. The old Pine hopes that every part of it may be 
filled with happiness." 

"The old Pine is one of Ellen's best friends," she said; 
" and then he has lots of common sense. That's why she likes 
to talk to him. But Ellen now must hurry home ; for Gertrude 
may want assistance, or to be released. And the pretty Edith 
will tumble all over Ellen when she sees her coming." 

"And the beautiful Ellen?" 

" Will bid the old Pine good-bye." 

The look of decision and power again reigned in her eye : 
that look which all the trees and plants and stones and rocks of 
our mountain had learned both to respect and to love. And 
with a smile for all, she sprang into the forest and disappeared. 

"Always," I said, "it is the same sweet Ellen — fearless, 
unsparing, hating error and loving Truth." 



INDEX 



ABSORPTION, II. 403. 
t Action and reaction, I. 93. 
Action and resistance, I. 95. 

" without contact unthinkable, II.47. 
Aggregation, in nature, results of, II. 202. 

" law of, II. 202. 

Air, composition of, I. 162. 
" confinable, II. 201, 216. 
" hypothetical rarefactions of, travel 

faster than condensations, II. 357. 
" in a tube, action of, different from 

that of unconfined air, II. 348. 
" mobility of, II. 382, 387. 
" movement of, II. 238. 
" specific heat of, at constant pressure, 

and constant volume, II. 242. 
" vibration of, II. 238, 300. 
" waves, hypothetical, II. 238, 276, 385. 
" waves, hypothetical, plain or spher- 
ical, impossible, II. 360. 
All things substantial, I. 275, 289, 301. 
Animals and plants, how related, I. 165. 
Animals, bodies of, automata, I. 174, 189. 
" used as vehicles, I. 177. 
" capable of thought and affection, 
I. 69, 70. 
Annealing, II. 64. 

Antitheses in nature, I. 27, 28, 53, 197. 
Aristotle, I. 87. 

Arithmetic, discussion of, I. 232-265. 
Aspiration, evidence of immortality, I. 43. 
Atomic theory of creation, I. 54, 81. 



Atoms, I. 79. 

Authors (and books), quotations from: 

" Abbott, Jacob, II. 351. 

" Airy, II. 145, 196, .213, 311. 

" American Cyclopaedia, Appleton's, 

I. 179. 

" American Journal of Science, 

II.307. 
" Bacon, II. 204. 
Berreuil, II. 89. 
" Bible, I. 23, 45, 82, 102, 104, 107, 
112, 115, 190, 226, 274, 317, 

337; II- 2 7 2 - 
" Blaserna, Pietro, II. 199. 
" Blythe, James, II. 412. 
" Biichner, II. 75. 
" Burns, I. 12, 332. 
" Challis, Rev. Jas., II. 223, 249, 

274, 360. 
" Cicero, I. 17. 
" Circle of Sciences, II. 321. 
" Cornelius, S., II. 44. 
" Correlation of Physical Forces, 

II. 379- 

" Crookes, William, II. 455. 

" Dana, I. 132. 

" Darwin, I. 115, 117, 140. 

" Deschenel, IL 198. 

" Dubois-Reymond, II. 43. 

" DiiPrel, II. 75. 

" Dynamic Theory, II. 419. 

" Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, II. 247. 



462 



INDEX 



Authors (and books), quotations from: 
" Economy of Nature, II. 316. 
" Electricity in the Service of Man, 

II. 191. 
" Emerson, I. 89. 
" Encyclopaedia Britannica, I. 90, 

116, 118, 129, 328; II. 13, 53, 

66, 308. 
" Encyclopaedia, Chambers', I. 28, 

293; II. 53, 140, 189, 318. 
" Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, II. 

162, 219, 312. 
" Encyclopaedia, Reese's, II. 445. 
" Encyclopaedic Dictionary, II. 30. 
" Faraday, II. 352, 454. 
" Force and Matter, II. 75. 
" Ganot, I. 328; II. 5, 8, 35, 55, 

65, 106, 108, 148, 197, 225, 284, 

302, 337> 355' 35 8 > 365, 39*- 
" Goethe, I. 160. 
" Goldingham, John, II. 316. 
" Goodman, J., II. 447. 

Gregory, D. C., II. 316. 
" Grove, W. R., II. 379. 
" Guyot, II. 45. 

Haeckel, II. 44. 
" Helmholtz, II. 321. 
" Herschel, J. F., II. 162, 219, 312. 

Higgins, W. M., II. 311. 
" Hobbes, Thos., II. 24. 
" Hooke, I. 294. 

" Hutton's Mathematical Diction- 
ary, II. 192, 315. 
" Huxley, I. 116, 118, 126, 129, 130, 

I3 1 * H7- 
" Journal d' Physique, II. 445. 
" Kepler, I. 160. 
" Laplace, I. 39; II. 382. 
" LeConte, J., II. 312, 369. 
" Lecture on the Origimof Species, 

II.452. 
" Lefevre, A., II. 44. 
" Locke, I. 17, 56, 102, 175, 313. 



Authors (and books), quotations from: 
Lodge, II. 47. 

" London, Edinburgh and Dublin 
Philosophical Magazine, II. 153, 
190, 191, 196, 369, 372. 

" Longfellow, I. 51. 

" McKenzie, G. S., II. 446. 

" Maxwell, J. C., I. 90; II. 90, 370. 

" Mayer, A., II. 44, 418. 

" Mecanique Celeste, II. 382. 

" Meikle, Henry, II. 252, 264. 

" Memoirs of Philosophical Society 
of Manchester, II. 447. 

" Meyer, O. E., II. 150. 

" Mohr, F., II. 44. 

" Moleschott, II. 43. 

" Moon, Robert, II. 357. 

" Mother Goose, II. 231, 425. 

" Munchausen, Baron, II. 292. 

" Newton, I. 32, 90, 91, 94; II. 99, 

ii7' H5> 43 6 - 
" Nicholson's Journal, II. 286. 

Oersted, Professor, II. 188. 
" Olmsted, Professor, II. 9. 
" Paley, I. 340-344- 
" Papillon, Ferdinand, II. 14. 
" Parry's Second Voyage, II. 309. 
" Pascal, I. 79. 
" Philosophical Magazine, II. 151, 

247, 285, 360, 406. 
" Piesse, II. 19. 
" Plato, I. 41, 147, 153-159' 223, 

339; II. 341. 
" Poisson, II. 245. 
" Pope, I. 24. 

" Popular Science Monthly, II. 30. 
" Potter, Professor, II. 244. 
" Practical Telephony, II. 404. 
" Preston, S. F., II. 151, 
" Principia, I. 91 ; II. 436. 
" Problem of Human Life, II. 407. 
" Proceedings of Royal Society of 

Edinburgh, II. 446. 



INDEX 



463 



Authors (and books), quotations from: 

" Proceedings of Royal Society of 
London, II. 310, 316, 357. 

" Quarterly Journal, II. 252, 264. 

" Scott, Sir Walter, II. 420, 432. 

" Shakespeare, I. 8, 29, 51, 179, 
284, 289; II. 4. 

" Silliman's Journal, II. 418. 

" Socrates, I. 21. 

" Spiller, II. 44, 80. 

" The Kinetic Theory of Gases, II. 
150. 

" Thompson, David, II. 308. 

" Thompson, S. P., II. 406. 

" Traite de Mecanique, II. 245. 

" Transactions of the Royal Society, 
Edinburgh, II. 370, 412. 

" Tribune, X. Y., I. 309. 

" Tyndall, II. 6, 90, 170-183, 192, 
209/ 220, 222, 232, 235, 242, 
270, 275, 282, 296, 323, 427. 

" Vignoli, F., II. 44. 

" Waterston, II. 153. 

" Weis, II. 44. 

" Wheatstone, Sir Charles, experi- 
ments by, II. 427. 

" Young, Thomas, II. 341. 

BALLS, ivory, movement of, II. 174. 
Beautiful, nature of the, I. 9. 
Beauty, I. 8. 

" absolute, I. 147. 
" nature of, I, 200, 206, 222-224. 
Being, significance of, I. 245. 
Beings of different character, occupations 

of, different, I. 175. 
Blood, circulation of the, I. 166. 
Bodies, normal vibration of, II. 293. 
Body, cohesion of, incomprehensible, I. 58. 
" nature of, I. 56. 
" the, a machine, I. 36, 160, 173, 174, 

179. 
" the, for use of soul, I. 36, 52, 148. 



Body, the, functions ^f, I. 162. 

" " how sustained, I. 171. 

" " independent of the will, I. 177. 

" " natural and spiritual, I. 190. 

" " resemblance of, to an engine, 
I. 168, 177-179. 
Bonnet, views of, regarding development, 

I. 128. 
Boyle's law, II. 106. 
Brain, an organ, I. 289. 

" nature and functions of, I. 287-303. 

CAMERA, operation of, I. 325. 
Care possible only to intelligence, I. 
20. 
Cause, sufficient, I. 39, 54, 139, 300; II.. 

295> 339- 
Cell, nucleated, I. 130. 
Change, impossible without motion, I. 202. 
Choice, importance of, I. 44. 
Circle, circumference and diameter of, com- 
mensurable, I. 263. 
Circulatory methods of nature, I. 32, 78, 

81; II. 42, 346. 
Coefficient, Poisson's, II. 58. 
Combination and disintegration the result 

of motion, I. 72. 
Combination, differences from, I. 122. 
Common measure, greatest, I. 248, 250. 

" multiple, I. 252. 
Condensations and rarefactions, II. 176. 
Condensations and rarefactions, supposed 

causes of, II. 241. 
Conscience, nature of, I. 45. 
Copernican system, II. 13. 
Copernicus, I. 87. 

Correlative of sound, II. 195, 197, 270, 274. 
Creation, all things a, I. 125. 

" an expression of mind, I. 137. 

" atomic theory of, I. 54. 

" by design, I. 15. 

" by separate acts, not by evolution, 
I. 102, 103, 135. 



464 



INDEX 



Creation, in its nature infinite, I, 143. 
" method of, I. 52, 60-64. 
" mysteries of, I. 52. 
" nature of, I. 286, 347. 
" only by intelligence, I. 75, 102, 

106. 
" the work of God, I. 106, 112. 

DEATH, I. 189. 
Decimals, recurring, I. 257. 
Design, creation by, I. 15. 

" necessary to creation, I. 210. 
" precedes creation, I. 15. 
" unity of, I. 16, 18, 346. 
Development, law of, I. 122. 

" nature of, I. 40. 

Differences in nature, II. 43. 

" principle of, I. 197. 

Digestion, processes of, I. 164. 
Distance, nature of, I. 199, 200. 
Divisibility in infinitum, I. 59. 
Division, principle of, in nature, I. 52. 
Dreams, I. 80, 173, 196. 
Distribution, nature of, II. 437. 

EARTH, laws of, the laws of the uni- 
verse, I. 132. 
Earth, subordinate to the sun, I. 132. 
Ear used to gather sound, II. 204. 
Eddies, causes of, II. 294. 
Edith, I. 5, 6, 348; II. 458. 
Education, natural and artificial, similar, 

I. 321. 
Effects proportionate to amounts, I. 201. 
Elastic force, II. 39, 67. 

" matter in motion, II. 68. 

" nature of, II. 101, 148. 

Elasticity, II. 50, 67, 211. 
" of flexure, II. 60. 
" of torsion, II. 59. 
" of traction, II. 55. 
Electricity connected with sound, II. 188, 

190, 191, 192. 
Electricity, discoveries in, II. 191, 192. 



Electricity, material, I. 78. 

" nature of, II. 337. 

Electric spark, II. 337. 
Elements, combination of, the law of 

creation, II. 41. 
Elements, number of, I. 64, 65. 
Ellen, I. 4, 6. 

Ellen's first meeting with the old Pine, I. 5. 
" Mountain, views from, I. i; II. 1. 
Emotions, how made, I. 80. 
Emboitement, I. 129. 
Energy, indestructible, II. 345. 
Environment, effect of, I. 40, 125, 127. 
Epigenesis, I. 122, 128, 130, 131. 
Erith, explosion near, II. 209. 
Essences, artificial, II. 23. 
Ether, wholly imaginary, II. 228. 
Euler, II. 142. 
Evil, I. 23. 

" impossible, I. 24, 28. ' 
Evolution, discussion of, I. 15, 102, 112, 

115, 120, 129, 131, 139, 140, 142. 
Evolution impossible, I. 214. 

" in the intellect, I. 138, 139. 

" its beginning and end, I. 101. 

" needlessly complex, I. 140. 

" spiritual, I. 142. 
Existence, character of, I. 332, 335. 

" different states of, I. 24, 70, 107. 

" future, no more remarkable 

than present, I. 35. 

" nature of, I. 345. 

" present, evidence of future ex- 

istence, I. 338. 

" without end, I. 24. 

Expansion, cause of, II. 67. 
Experiments of sound conducted by wire, 

II. 412-417. 
Experiments with sounding board, II. 428. 
Explosions, nature of, II. 117, 170. 
External influences the cause of varia- 
tion, I. 135, 
Eye, physical, I. 144. 



INDEX 



465 



Eye, the mind's, I. 144. 

FACTORS, I. 246. 
Faith, nature of, T. 283. 
Families, variation of, I. 120. 
Food, law of its production, I. 60. 
Force, II. 351, 354. 

nature of, I. 76, 78, 83; II. 352. 
Forces, natural, how made, I. 66. 
" " identity of, II. 447. 

" " insufficient for creation, 

I. 106. 
" " known only by effects, II. 5. 

" " use of, I. in, 112. 

Form, perfection of, independent of size, 

I- 345- 
Fractions, common, reduced to decimals, 

I. 256, 257. 
Fractions, decimal, changed to common, 

I. 257, 258. 

GASES, free path of, II. 149. 
Gas, ideal, II. 227. 
Generation non-existent in nature, I. 129. 
Germ a detached portion of a pre-existing 

body, I. 126. 
Germination and grov th from the seed 

I. 184. 
Gertrude, I. 4, 6, 348; II. 458. 
God, all things impossible without, I. 20. 
" knowledge of, universal, I. 22. 
" power of, infinite, I. 23. 
" self-existent and eternal, I. 19. 
" the Creator of all things, I. 270, 345. 
Good, absolute, I. 147. 

" includes the beautiful, I. 46. 
" universal, the object of creation, I. 
24, 161. 
Graphophone, II. 429-431. 
Graphophone record, II. 423. 
Gravitation, II. 5, 40, 75, 296. 
" history of, I. 87. 

" limited in its action, II. 295. 

" nature of, I. 83, 84, 90. 



Greatest common measure, I. 248-250. 
Growth, I. 128. 

" law of, I. 131. 

" power of, I. 34. 

" subject to limitation, I. 125. 

HAWKSBEE, experiments by, II. 216. 
Hearing, range of, II. 284. 
Heat a mode of motion, II. 224. 

" generated by compression, II. 222, 

224. 
" discussion of, II. 447. 
" hypothesis of, II. 225. 
" laws of, II. 79. 

" undulatory. theory of, similar to that 
of sound, II. 6, 7. 
Heaven, description of, I. 30. 

" necessary sequence of existence, 
I.82. 
proof of, I. 32- 
Henry, J., experiments bv, II. 418. 
Heredity, I. 101, 177, 178. 
Huxley, views of, regarding development, 

I. 130. 

Hydrogen gas a poor conductor of sound, 

II. 177. 

Hypotheses an undesirable foundation for 
science, II. 165. 

IDEAS conveyed by sensation, I. 308, 
345- 
Ideas not created by man, I. 215. 
" numbers of, I. 2r8. 
" the primal cause of all things, I. 
104, 138. 
Imagination limited, I. 1/4. 
Immortality of the soul, evidence of, I. 42, 

195- 
Inertia, I. 99; II. 343. 

" of matter, an error, II. 45. 

Infinite, unmeasurable by finite, I. 54. 

Infinity, I. 53. 

Intellect, all things originate in, I. 103, 

104, 137, 158. 



466 



INDEX 



Intellect, how it creates, L 141. 
Intelligence, supreme, I. 75; II. 426. 
" universal, I. 16. 

JACQUES, experiments by, II. 307. 
Justice, absolute, I. 147. 
Justice, nature of, I. 200, 204, 206, 209. 

KINETIC theory of gases, II. 102, 148, 
150,- 237, 439. 
Knowledge, not inherited, I. 290. 
" recollection, I. 195. 

LAKE CHAMPLAIN, I. 2. 
Lamarck, II. 445. 
Laplace, formula of, for speed of sound, 
II. 221, 233, 234, 235, 238, 243, 244, 
248, 249, 250, 252. 
Laws of nature universal, I. 288, 303. 
Least common multiple, I. 251-255. 
Leibnitz, views of, regarding development, 

I. 129. 
Liegeois, experiments in odors by, II. 17. 
Life, a creation, I. 15, 100. 
" and death, I. 225. 
" a part of the body, I. 36. 
" conceptions of, I. 29, 36, 39. 
u different phases of, I. 34. 
" nature of, I. 100. 
" of body, how related to intelligence, 

I. 19. 
" origin of, I. 101. 
Light, corpuscular theory of, II. 7. 
" laws of, II. 78. 
" nature of, I. 330-331. 
" undulatory theory of, II. 8. 
" undulatory theory of, similar to 

that of sound, II 6. 
" velocity of, I. 67. 
Like comes from like, I. 316. 
" produces like, I. 114, 122, 126, 127, 

I3i- 
Lymphatic system, I. 163, 164. 



MACHINERY, I. 136; II. 287, 288, 
353, 436. _ 
Machinery, necessity of, II. 436. 
Man, one of three things, I. 155. 
Man, place of, in the universe, I. 175. 

" the user of his body, I. 154. 
Manufactories limited in their operations, 

I. 136. 
Manufacture only possible by intelligence, 

I. 189. 
Mathematicians, II. 369-371. 
Mathematics, II. 367. 

" how related to physics, II. 

169. 
Matter, all things in the material universe 

composed of, II. 437. 
Matter, changing character of, I. 71. 
" definition of, I. 60. 
" elements of, combined, the uni- 
versal law of creation, I. 55, 60, 
64; II. 41. 
elements of, number of, I. 65. 
essence of, unknown, I. 56. 
extension of, I. 70. 
infinite division of, I. 59, 80. 
influenced by matter, I. 72. 
in motion, force, I. 83. 
laws of its use, I. 269. 
laws of, universal, I. 132. 
nature of, I. 56, 65, 68, 71, 72, 75. 
sufficient for all material purposes, 

II. 353- 

Measure, common, I. 247-251. 

Medium, a, necessary to the existence of 

other things, II. 216. 
Megaphone, II. 203, 402. 

" in fog signaling, II. 114. 

Memory, an organ, I. 294, 301. 

" a repository of ideas, I. 295. 

" nature of, I. 301. 
Mental vision superior to physical, I. 144. 
Metamorphosis, I. 122, 128, 131. 
Metaphor, use of, II. 10. 



INDEX 



467 



Meteorites, II. 79, 80. 

Meteors, II. 219. 

Mice, tailless, propagation of, I. 125. 

Microphone, II. 396, 411. 

" illustration of, II. 399. 

" magnifies sound, II. 35. 

Mind and body, how related, I. 270. 
" and matter, definitions of, I. 60. 
" and matter, distinctions between, 
I. 75, 77,278,281,311,314,323; 
II. 354- 
" and matter, inconvertible, I. 273. 
Mind, developed by education, I. 307. 
" gradations of, I. 324. 
" knowledge of, derived from uni- 
versality of nature's laws, I. 135. 
" laws of, I. 139. 
" " universal, I. 135; II. 83. 

" manifestations of, in animals, I. 271- 

272. 
" nature of, I. 52, 138. 
" necessary to creation, I. 160. 
" operates by contact, I. 324. 
" operations of, I. 56, 76, 82. 
" superior to matter, I. 125. 
" the creative power, I. 60, 131, 174, 
270, 304; II. 234. 
Minuteness in nature, I. 79. 
Miracles, not existing, I. 54, 81. 
Mobility of fluids, II. 178, 195. 
" principle of, II. 382. 
Models in the brain indispensable to crea- 
tion, I. 212-214. 
Models in the brain, nature of, I. 212, 215. 
Mode of motion, odor a, II. 24. 
Modes of motion, I. 20, 55; II. ^3- 
Modulus of elasticity, II. 57. 
Molecules, extraordinary motions of, II. 

152. 
Molecules, motions of, II. 226. 

" of matter, II. 456. 

Moment of a force, II. 64. 
Momentum, II. 343, 348. 



Moral qualities, supreme, I. 18. 
Motion, I. 68; II. 343. 

" a property of matter, I. 65, 75, 91 ; 
II. 43-46, 344- 

" caused by pressure, II. 39. 

" fundamental law of, II. 345. 

" how produced, II. 39. 

" how propagated through a fluid, 
II. 102. 

" in elastic bodies, II. 344. 

" inseparable from matter, I. 68, 72, 
96; II. 41, 345. 

" laws of, discussed, II. 112. 

" modes of, 1. 20, 55 ; II. 33, 93, 224. 

" nature of, I. 83, 91, 99; II. 342. 

" Newton's laws of, I. 92. 

" of rotation, II. 343. 

" of translation, II. 343. 

" originating in mind, I. 76. 

" oscillatory, II. 343. 

" rectilinear, II. 345. 

" the result of contact, I. 77, 96; 
II. 47- 

" the result of pressure, II. 345. 

" variableness of, II. 439. 
Multiple, I. 247, 248, 251-255. 

NATURE, circulatory methods of, I. 32, 
78, 81; II.42. 
Nature, forces of, II. 5. 

" " interchangeable, II. 346. 

" " intimately related, II. 79. 

" laws of, universal, I. 132, 172; 
II. 75-84, 92, 287, 354, 426. 
Nerves of sensation, function of, II. 91. 
Nerve stimulus, II. 72. 
Newton, I. 89. 

Newton on gravitation, I. 90. 
Newton's laws of motion, I. 92. 

" main proposition on sound 
founded on an hypothesis, 
II. 145. 
" main proposition on sound, 



468 



INDEX 



review of, by J. J. Waterston, 
II. 153. 
" propositions, errors of, II. 140, 

141. 
" propositions relating to sound, 

II. 99-139- 
" theory of light, II. 7. 
" theory of sound, objections to, 
II. 160. 
Nines, peculiarities of, I. 244, 251. 
Normal vibrations of bodies, II. 432. 
Number, composite, I. 247. 

" prime, I. 246. 
Numbers, an abstraction, I. 235. 
" measure of, I. 247, 248. 
" nature of, I. 243, 247. 
" properties of, I. 246-248, 250. 
" symbols of ideas, I. 233. 

ODOR, a mode of motion, II. 24, 
30, 31- 
Odor and sound, analogy between, II. 19. 
Odors artificially produced, II. 22. 
Odors carried by oxygen, II. 19. 
" composition of, II. 21. 
" diffusion of, II. 17. 
" discussion of, II. 14-34. 
" h harmony of, II. 19. 
" having power of motion, II. 16. 
" operations of, similar to sound, 
II. 19. 
Oersted, Dr. H. C, II. 189. 
Opinions, bad, all, I. 41 ; II. 354. 
Opposites, law of, I. 197. 
" nature of, I. 274. 

" not interchangeable, I. 202. 

^~ " principle of, I. 276, 277. 

Order, universal in nature, I. 54. 
Organs, rudimentary, a part of the organ- 
ized life in which they exist, I. 114. 
Organs, useless, I. 114. 

PANTHEISM refuted, I. 16. 
Papillun on odors, II. 14-23. 



Perception, range of, I. 82. 

Perfection, the culmination of creation, 

I. 138, 143. 
Permanence, the nature of spiritual things, 

I- 347- 
Phonograph, II. 430. 
Physical forces, nature of, II. 5. 
Pictures, nature of, I. 216, 217. 
Pitch determined by rate of vibration, II. 

283, 291. 
Plants and animals, how related, I. 165. 
" - lower, development of, I. 180. 
" nature of, I. 179. 
Pleasure and pain, nature of, I. 203. 
Pressure, propagation of, in a fluid, II. 99. 
Probabilities, theory of, II. 149. 
Production, source of, I. 122. 
Proportion, I. 260, 261. 

" harmonical, I. 262. 

Pulse in a tube, II. 340, 342, 355, 376, 386. 
Pulse in a tube, action of, foundation of 

undulatory theory of sound, II. 354- 

35 6 > 372-381. 
Pulse in a tube, speed of, different from 

that of sound, II. 366. 
Pulse in a tube, velocity of, varies, II. 341. 
Pulses, distances of, II. 137. 

" in an elastic fluid, velocity of, II. 

J 3i- 

" propagation of, in a fluid, II. 125. 
Purpose, all things made for a, II. 438. 
Pythagoras, I. 87. 

UANTITY, nature of, I. 232. 



Q 



RADIANT matter, II. 214, 454-457. 
Radiant matter, not perceptibly af- 
fected by gravitation, II. 295. 
Radiation, II. 403. 
Reason, function of, I. 144. 
Recapitulation, II. 451-457. 
Reciprocal of a number, II. 64. 
Reflection, II. 403, 



INDEX 



469 



Reflection of sound, II. 6. 
Regnault, experiments by, II. 372. 

" undulatory theory disproved by, 
II. 37S. 
Reproduction, I. 307. 

" discussions of, I. 209, 215. 

Resemblances general in nature, I. 141. 
Resistance, I. 94. 
Resonance, II. 296-301, 423. 
Respiration, I. 164. 
Rest, a necessity, I. 171. 

" transitory character of, I. 71. 
Revelation, I. 335, 336. 
Reversion, I. 112, 113, 115-11S. 
Ritter, views of, regarding sound, II. 189. 
Room for phenomena of nature, abundant. 

II. 388, 389- 
Roots, rational and surd, I. 262. 
Rudimentary organs, I. 1 12, 113, 1 1 5-1 18. 

SCIENTISTS, superstitions of, II. 347. 
Scientists unmindful of nature's 
laws, I. 54. 
Sensation, nerves of, II. 70. 

" result of contact and assimila- 

tion, II. 91-93. 
" result of material conditions, 

II- 353- 
Sensations, analogy between, II. 19. 
" exist first materially, II. 88. 

" how produced, II. 440-442. 

Senses, the five, II. 13. 
Similarity of organs no proof of evolution, 

I. 141. 
Size, estimate of, I. 302, 303. 

" relative, I. 78. 
Size, relativity of, II. 346. 
Sleep, I. 48, 161, 172. 
Sleeping and waking, I. 225. 
Smell, definition of, II. 30. 
" location of, II. 14. 
" sense of, highly developed, II. 20. 
Soul and body, how related, 1. 29, 52, 148. 



Soul connected with greater soul, I. 29. 
" immortal, I. 149. 
" manifestations of, disappear at death, 

I- 36, 315- 

" manifestations of the, I. 149. 
" nature of, I. 149. 
" the, is man, I. 155. 
" " why connected with body, I. 33. 
Souls, differences of, I. 285. 
Sound, aggregation of, II. 202, 288. 

" and hearing, distinction between, 

II. 9. 
" and vibration, relation of, II. 36, 424. 
" an entity, II. 207, 440, 446. 
" a subtle- form of matter, II. 216. 
" character of, defined by vibration, 

II. 420. 
" collected by sail of ship, II. 203. 
" collection and reflection of, by the 

ear, II. 204. 
" correlative of, II. 195, 197, 270- 

274. 
" criticism of the theory of, II. 5. 
" definitions of, II. 8, 9. 
" destruction of, II. 301. 
" differences in, how made, II. 286. 
" different theories of, II. 445. 
" distribution of, II. 295. 
" electrical, II. 188, 1S9. 
" experiments in, by Prof. Henry, 

II 418. 
" experiments in, conducted by wire, 

II. 412. 
" in rarefied air, II. 219. 
" in telephone and graphophone, 

operation of, II. 391. 
" intensity of, II. 175, 279, 284. 
" " " laws of, II. 172, 180. 

" interference of, II. 298, 300. 
" made by sound, II. 432. 
" nature of, II. 69, 404. 
" Newton's main propositions on, 
founded on hypothesis, II. 145. 



47Q 



INDEX 



Sound, Newton's propositions concerning, 

II. 99-139- 
Newton's propositions of, criticised 

by Herschel, II. 163. 
Newton's propositions of, criticised 

by Lagrange, II. 164. 
Newton's propositions of, criticised 

by Waterston, II. 153. 
not controlled by gravitation, II . 295 . 
not controlled by vibration, II. 291, 
objective, II. 10. 
of electrical character, II. 90. 
produced by explosion of meteors. 

II. 219, 220. 
produced by shock, II. 35. 

" vibration, II. 68, 71, 
89, 207, 423. 
propagation of, II. 70, 190, 191 > 

285, 292. 
resemblance to electricity, II. 220, 

284. 
tenuity of, II. 185. 
theory of, by Lemarck, II. 445. 
the whole in all the air, II. 204. 
timbre, or quality of, II. 197, 198, 

200, 339. 
transference of, II. 427. 
transmission of, by loose electrical 

contact, II. 412-417. 
transmission through solids, II. 282. 
Tyndall on reflection of, II. 6. 
Tyndall's book on, review of, II. 

I70-333- 

undulatory theory of, I. 55. 

undulatory theory of, discussion of, 
II. 3-458. 

undulatory theory of, fatal incon- 
sistencies of, II. 276. 

undulatory theory of, fatal objec- 
tions to, pointed out by Henry 
Meikle, II. 264, 267. 

undulatory theory of, impossible, 
II. 87. 



Sound, velocity of, experiments concerning, 
II. 302-317. 
" velocity of, inherent, II. 439. 
" velocity of, in water, II. 328. 
" velocity of, not due to elastic force 

of the air, II. 292. 
" velocity of, uniform, II. 440. 
" waves, hypothetical, illustrations of, 

II. 334-342. 
" waves, photographs of, II. 337. 
Sounding boards, II. 293, 428. 

" experiments with, II. 
428, 43°- 
Space, how inhabited, I. 31. 

" infinity of, I. 30. 
Special creation necessarily true, T. -?T4. 
Species and varieties, test of, I. 128. 

" differ in almost insensible degrees, 

I. 176. 
" extinction of, I. 127. 
Spectral analysis, II. 80-82. 
Speed, relative, I. 79. 
Spirit, essence of, unknown, I. 57, 58. 
" nature of, I. 56. 

" not more unknown than body, I. 58. 
Spiritual controls the material, I. 142. 
" immortal, I. 150. 
" world, I. 82, 108. 
Substance, a, I. 56. 
Substances, organic and inorganic, I. 163, 

179. 
Substantial, all things, I. 264; II. 42. ■ 
Success, how achieved, I. n. 

" nature of, I. II. 
Sufficient cause, principle of, I. 39, 54, 139. 
Sunset from Ellen's Mountain, I. 347. 
Superstitions of science, II. 231. 
Symbols, use of, II. 93. 
Sympathetic vibration, II. 294. 

TASTE aided by odors, II. 16. 
Telephone, II. 391. 
Telephone, experiments with, II. 403-419. 



INDEX 



471 



Telephone, explanation of action of, II. 

4-03- 
Telephone, illustrations of, II. 392. 
Thales, I. 87. 
Things, character of, variable, I. 202. 

" manner in which they pass each 
other, II. 390. 
Thinker and thought, distinction between, 

I. 69, 149. 
Thinking, nature of, I. 299. 
Thought, how formed, II. 353. 

" manufactured by the soul, I. 148, 
160. 

" manufactured in the brain, I. 69, 
160. 

" nature of, I. 69, 70, 80. 

" not mind, I. 266. 

" result of sensation, I. 316. 

" the essence of existence, I. 345. 
Time, how informed of, I. 294. 

" nature of, I. 226. 
Tissues, composition of, I. 163. 

" the, I. 162. 
Tremulous bodies in elastic and non- 
elastic media, II. 117. 
Trope, II. 10. 

Tube, Tynd all's experiment with, II. 184. 
Tuning fork, action of, II. 207. 

UNDULATORY theories, I. 55; II. 
228. 
Undulatory theories, at variance with com- 
mon sense, II. 4. 
Undulatory theory of sound impossible, 

II. 87. 

Universe, the physical, a mechanism, I. 118, 

119. 
Use, all things made for, I. 174. 

" nature of, I. 36. 

" only possible to intelligence, I. 189. 

" the object of creation, I. 174, 176, 189. 



User different from thing used, I. 153. 

VACUUM, sound in a, II. 216. 
Variation limited, I. 127. 
Varieties of animals and plants, how 

formed, I. 135, 137. 
Variety a universal law of nature, I. 1 20; 

II. 287. 
Variety and improvement, principles of, 
I. 139. 
" how produced, II. 288. 
Vibration, II. 207, 420. 

" amplitude of, II. 279. 
" cause of, II. 68. 
" denned, II. 39. 
" made by sound, II. 419-424. 
" relation of, to sound, II. 36. • 
" sympathetic, II. 186, 294. 
Vibrations, number of necessary to sound, 

II. 291. 
Vision, limited, I. 31, 143. 

" mental, superior to physical, I. 144. 
" nature of, I. 326, 327. 
" physical and mental, I. 282-283. 
Vis viva, II. 201. 



w 



ATER, how formed, I. 57, 68. 



Water waves propagated by gravity, II. 125. 
Waves, as such cannot be reflected or 

gathered, II. 195. 
Waves, description of, II. 318, 321, 330. 
" how formed, II. 331. 
" in air similar to water waves im- 
possible, II. 339. 
Waves, reflection of, II. 196. 

." velocity of, II. 123. 
Wheatstone, experiments by, II. 427. 
World, material, extent of, I. 30. 

" spiritual, equally varied and infi- 
nite with that of matter, I. 30. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE AMERICAN PUBLISHING COMPANY 

MIDDLEBURY, VERMONT. 



The Morgan Horse and Register, Vol. I, By Joseph Battell. 
One thousand pages. Handsomely illustrated. Price $5.00, postage 
prepaid. 

One of the three successful registers in the establishment of an 
American family of horses. 



OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 

Volume I. of The Morgan Horse and Register, by Joseph Battell, has at last been 
published, and the receipt of a copy is acknowledged. I say at [last been published, 
because a number of years have been devoted to its preparation, and it is the con- 
scientiousness of the author which has caused the long delay. It is an octavo of 
over 1000 pages, handsomely bound and profusely illustrated, and, without hav- 
ing taken time to examine it critically, I do not hesitate to pronounce it not only by 
far the most comprehensive work ever published on the Morgan family, but one of 
the most important contributions to trotting literature that has been made. Next 
week it is my purpose to give it an extended review, and only say meantime that no 
student of breeding can afford to leave it out of his library. — ["Griffin" in Turf, Field 
and Farm. 

Woodburn Farm, Spring Station, Kentucky. 
Mr. Joseph Battell, 

Dear Sir : — I read your article on the Canadian pacer in the "Morgan Horse" 
with much interest. Accept thanks for it. Very aaily yours, 

L. Brodhead, Supt. Woodburn Farm. 



We acknowledge the receipt of The Morgan Horse and Register, containing the 
history and pedigree of Justin Morgan, founder of this remarkable American breed 
of horses, and of his best known sons and grandsons. It is a magnificent work and 
reflects great credit on the. author, Mr. Joseph Battell. The articles relative to the 
old Canadian stock are particularly instructive, and all horsemen in this part of the 
country should avail themselves of the chance to study up the history of Pilot, old St. 
Lawrence, La Bonte Horse, Dansereau, Live Oak and others. — [Canadian Breeder. 



Joseph Battell, Esq., Lexington, Mass. 

My Dear Sir: — Your valued favor is received; also Vol. I. of The Morgan 
Horse and Register. As the book was received this morning, I have had little time to 
read it. It is very handsome and I was particularly pleased with the chapters on 
the Stars, Pilot, the pacers and the breeding of the original Morgan. I do not see 
but your claim is admirably sustained. Very truly yours, 

Edward S. Payson. 



Vol. I. of Battell's Morgan Horse and Register has at last been issued. It is a vol- 
ume of more than a thousand pages, and no more beautiful press work has ever been 
seen. The volume shows a vast amount of research and personal investigation. It 
contains a great deal which has never before been published, and will probably 
lead to endless discussion. * * * The portraits of Denning Allen, the Fear, 
naughts, Lord Clinton and others are gems of art and beauty. 

But pictures do not make books, and Mr. Battell's Register is one of the most val- 
uable of recent acquisitions to equine literature, one that should be in the library of 
every horseman and every student of the breeding problem. No one before has at- 
tempted a work of such magnitude, nor has endeavored to get at the evidence on 
. which is based the many beliefs as to the ancestry of many famous ones, and while it 
may surprise some to find in the first volume the claim that Seely's American Star 
and old Pacing Pilot are direct descendants of Justin Morgan, it must be admitted 
the evidence given is quite as conclusive as that upon which is based the claim that 
their ancestry is in other lines. — [Clark's Horse Review. 



The Morgan Horse and Register is the latest and one of the most valuable 
contributions to horse literature that we have had the pleasure of examining. * * * 

It has generally been conceded by those who had studied the subject carefully 
that the family of horses founded by Justin Morgan has never been equalled as road- 
sters and for general purposes where animals of heavy weight were not required. * * 

The most surprising pedigree in the work is that of Seely's American Star. It 
has long been claimed by those who had investigated the matter carefully that he 
could not have been by Stockholm's American Star, which appeared as his sire in 
the earlier volumes of Wallace's Trotting Register. Probably Mr. Battell spent 
more time and money carefully investigating this pedigree and collecting facts in re- 
gard to it than any other in the work, and he has been amply rewarded. After 
giving the facts fully upon which he bases the pedigree, Mr. Battell gives the breed- 
ing of this renowned brood-mare sire as follows : 

AMERICAN STAR (SEELY'S) 
Chestnut or sorrel, with star, hind feet white, 15% hands, 1050 pounds; foaled 1837; 
bred by Henry H. Berry, Pompton Plains, N. J. ; got by Coburn's American Star, son of 
Cock of the Rock, by Sherman Morgan ; dam, bay, stripe in face, about 16 hands, a used- 
up stage mare purchased in New York city by Mr. Berry at a small price to work in team, 
breeding entirely unknown. 

The chapters on Justin Morgan and Seely's American Star are alone worth twice 
the cost of the book. There is also a very interesting chapter on Pilot, sire of Pilot, 
Jr. Mr. Battell traced this horse through all the hands he passed until he located 
him in Montreal, and there is little doubt that he traced him from that point to his 
breeder. We are glad to learn from the author that the work is selling rapidly, 
and at the present rate of demand the first edition will soon be exhausted. — [Ameri- 
can Horse Breeder. 



Chasm Falls, N. Y. 
Mr Joseph Battell, 

Dear Sir: — The book came at noon today and I have spent nearly the entire 
afternoon in looking it over. You have produced a far better work even than I ex 



pected. It is very fine and very complete. Every part of it deeply interests me. I 
read chapter xiv., on "The Canadian Pacer," clear through, quite as much taken up 
with the description of the Canadian French as of that of their horses. 
Your book is worth more than you ask for it. Sincerely your friend, 

W. H. Harwood, M. D. 

We have received from Mr. Joseph Battell of Middlebury, Vt., the first volume of 
his new work, The Morgan Horse and Register. It is, mechanically, a very fine job: 
fine paper, elegant binding and illustrations, many of them half-tones from photo- 
graphs, and on fine plate paper, all go to render it an ornament, in the book line, fit 
for the parlor table. It contains iooo pages. Whatever adds to the sum of human 
knowledge in any special line is invaluable and to the specialist indispensable, and Mr. 
Battell's book should contain within its covers very much that is not only new, but im- 
portant. * * * Probably no man living, in a whole lifetime, ever travelled the 
distance inpursuit of information, wrote the letters, or spent the hours in historical re- 
search that the author of this work has done in the last ten years, and the result is em- 
bodied in this volume. * * * Truly "Truth lies at the bottom of the well" and 
Mr. Battell has gone deeper after it, stayed under longer, and come to the surface with 
more facts in his grasp than any other writer on the subject. It is a great work, and 
we have had no time as yet to master its contents, but as time occurs shall refer to it 
again and again. * * * [J. W. Thompson, author of Maine Bred Horses, etc., 
in Turf, Farm and Home, Waterville, Me. 



No publication upon the horse of recent years has awakened so great a public 
interest as this volume bearing the authorship of Mr. Battell of Vermont. — [Mirror 
and Farmer, Manchester, N. H. 



A very interesting chapter is devoted to old Canadian Pilot, concerning whose 
career Mr. Battell has certainly unearthed far more than any other compiler has ever 
found out. As a result, he feels justified in claiming Pilot as a Morgan horse, and 
while the evidence adduced does not appear to me as conclusive, it furnishes strong 
presumptions. Those interested in the heretofore unknown pedigree of Pilot — and 
what horseman is not? — should certainly buy the book, if only to read this chapter. 
— [W. T. Chester in Turf, Field and Farm. 



The Morgan Horse and Register, Vol. I., is an admirable work by Joseph Battell 
of Middlebury, Vt., and fills a niche in the breeders' library hitherto unoccupied. 
The pedigrees of about iooo animals are included. The book is handsomely and 
profusely illustrated and sells at $5. — [American Agriculturist. 



The Horseman, Chicago, 111. 
Mr. Joseph Battell, 

My Dear Sir:— The complimentary copy of The Morgan Horse and Register 
which you are good enough to send me came safely to hand. It is by long odds the 
most complete and comprehensive work of the kind ever issued, and all the friends 



and breeders of the Morgan horse owe you a life-long debt of gratitude for your 
painstaking labor in the field of your choice. It is not only of special value to Mor- 
gan horse breeders, but to all others engaged in the light harness horse industry. 
The illustrations serve a very good purpose and the malceup of the book renders it an 
ornament to any library. I will give it careful public review at the first chance. 
Meantime, with best wishes, I am Yours sincerely, 

E. C. Walker. "Veritas." 



The Morgan Horse and Register, by Joseph Battell of Middlebury, Vt., is one of the 
handsomest and most complete works on the horse ever issued in America, and reflects 
the greatest credit on the graceful writer that has almost devoted his life to the 
study of that great family. The illustrations are simply grand, and the work should be 
in the library of every lover of a trotter. — [Breeder and Sportsman, Safti Francisco. 



WHISPERINGS OF AN OLD PINE SERIES. 

BY JOSEPH BATTELL. 

ELLEN— Part I.— The Creation. Part II.— The Undulatory Theo- 
ries. Four hundred pages each, with 70 superior half-tone illustrations. 
Cloth, complete in one volume, $2.00. In two volumes, $2.50; either 
volume alone, $1.50. Postage prepaid. 

TO FOLLOW. 

ELLEN — Part III. — The Creation, continued. Includes analysis of 
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus, similar to that of arith- 
metic which appears in Part I. 

Part IV. Gertrude. 

Part V. Edith. 



The Morgan Horse and Register, Vol. II., is now in press. 

The Horse; also in press, in three volumes; 1800 pages. By 
Joseph Battell. This is "a history of the horse of all times and countries, 
and the most extended one ever published, especially complete in the 
history and pedigree of famous American horses. An invaluable work 
for all agricultural libraries. 

Vermont Illustrated. Three hundred pages. Being a complete 
history of Vermont from the earliest settlements to its admission into 
the Union. By W. H. Bliss, Esq. 

A book that all Vermonters should own. Elegantly illustrated with 
over 300 half-tone pictures of Vermont scenery and people. 













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